Small mammal mycophagy in hemiboreal forest communities of Lithuania

The diets of small mammals in different hemiboreal spruce-dominated, oak-dominated and mixed forests in western part of Lithuania were studied by examination of fungal spores in fresh fecal pellets of caught animals. In the diets of mice (Apodemus spp.), bank voles (Myodes glareolus), and common and pygmy shrews (Sorex araneus and S. minutus), 22 different fungal taxa were identified, 15 of which were hypogeous fungi. The sporocarp abundance and the spores in fecal samples of Elaphomyces fungi prevailed in study area during this investigation. Although most of the captured individuals consumed fungi, the consumption varied among small mammal species. The data show that the fungi were more frequent and taxonomically diverse in Myodes glareolus than in Apodemus spp. diets. The study provided evidence that the fungal component in the diets of insectivorous Sorex species is more diverse than previously known. The availability of sporocarps and the fungal component in the diets of small mammals showed seasonal effects. Annual hypogeous and epigeous sporocarp abundances did not vary significantly across forest types. The significant difference in mycophagy was observed across all forest cover types, with the greatest fungal diversity in fecal samples collected in mixed coniferous-deciduous tree stands.     

Competition, predation and interspecific synchrony in cyclic small mammal communities

Although competition and predation are considered to be among the most important biotic processes influencing the distribution and abundance of species in space and time, the relative and interactive roles of these processes in communities comprised of cyclically fluctuating populations of small mammals are not well known. We examined these processes in and among populations of field voles, sibling voles, bank voles and common shrews in western Finland, using spatially replicated trapping data collected four times a year during two vole cycles (1987–1990 and 1997–1999). Populations of the four species exhibited relatively strong interspecific temporal synchrony in their multiannual fluctuations. During peak phases, we observed slight deviations from close temporal synchrony: field vole densities peaked at least two months earlier than those of either sibling voles or bank voles, while densities of common shrews peaked even earlier. The growth rates of all four coexisting small mammal species were best explained by their own current densities. The growth rate of bank vole populations was negatively related to increasing densities of field voles in the increase phase of the vole cycle. Apart from this, no negative effects of interspecific density, direct or delayed, were observed among the vole species. The growth rates of common shrew populations were negatively related to increasing total rodent (including water voles and harvest mice) densities in the peak phase of the vole cycle. Sibling voles appeared not to be competitively superior to field voles on a population level, as neither of these Microtus voles increased disproportionately in abundance as total rodent density increased. We suggest that interspecific competition among the vole species may occur, but only briefly, during the autumn of peak years, when the total available amount of rodent habitat becomes markedly reduced following agricultural practices. Our results nonetheless indicate that interspecific competition is not a strong determinant of the structure of communities comprised of species exhibiting cyclic dynamics. We suggest that external factors, namely predation and shortage of food, limit densities of vole populations below levels where interspecific competition occurs. Common shrews, however, appear to suffer from asymmetric space competition with rodents at peak densities of voles; this may be viewed as a synchronizing effect.     

Cattle grazing, raptor abundance and small mammal communities in Mediterranean grasslands

Abundance and diversity of small mammals are usually affected strongly by grazing either due to decreased food availability or quality, decreased suitability of soil for building burrow systems due to trampling and/or due to increased predation risk in the structurally simpler grazed areas. We estimated the effects of grazing-induced changes in vegetation and soil and of increased predation on small mammals in a Mediterranean grassland landscape. We measured vegetation structure, soil compaction and small mammal abundance and species composition in 22 plots of 8 Sherman live traps each, arranged according to an unbalanced two-way ANOVA design with two grazing levels (grazed areas and cattle exclosures) and two predator abundance levels (increased densities of Eurasian kestrels Falco tinnunculus by means of nest boxes and control). Plots were sampled during 2 consecutive years in early summer and early fall. Exclosure from cattle increased significantly vegetation height and volume and decreased soil compaction. Grazing-induced changes in vegetation height and volume and in soil compaction produced strong effects on small mammal abundance and species richness. Increased kestrel densities did not have significant additive or interactive effects, with the effects of grazing-induced vegetation and soil gradients on abundance or richness of small mammals. Our results suggest that the effects of grazing on small mammal communities in Mediterranean montane grasslands were mainly due to reduced food availability and by negative effects of trampling on the suitability of soils for building burrow systems. Decreased food quality and increased predation in grazed areas seemed to play a minor role, if any. Reductions in stock densities would then favor generalist predator populations in Mediterranean grasslands through the expected positive effects of such reductions on the availability of food and burrows for small mammals.     

Untangling the roles of fire,grazing and rainfall on small mammal communities in grassland ecosystems

In grassland systems across the globe, ecologists have been attempting to understand the complex role of fire, grazing and rainfall in creating habitat heterogeneity and the consequences of anthropogenic control of these factors on ecosystem integrity and functioning. Using a South African grassland ecosystem as a model, we investigated the impact of fire and grazing pressure on small mammal communities during three differing periods of a rainfall cycle. Over 2 years, 15,203 trap nights revealed 1598 captures of 11 species (nine rodents, one macroscelid and one insectivore). Results highlighted the importance of the interplay between factors and showed that the role of fire, grazing and rainfall in determining small mammal abundance was species-dependant. While no two species were affected by the same environmental variables, grass cover or height was important to 56% of species. Considered independently, high rainfall had a positive influence on small mammal abundance and diversity, although the lag period in population response was species-specific. High grazing negatively affected overall abundance, but specifically in Mastomys coucha; fire alone had little immediate impact on small mammal diversity. Six months after the fire, vegetation cover had recovered to similar levels as unburned areas, although small mammal diversity and richness were higher in burned areas than unburned areas. Grazing levels influenced the rate of vegetation recovery. In conclusion, low-level grazing and burning can help to maintain small mammal biodiversity, if conducted under appropriate rainfall levels. A too high grazing pressure, combined with fire, and/or fire conducted under drought conditions can have a negative impact on small mammal biodiversity. To maintain small mammal diversity in grassland ecosystems, the combined effects of the previous year’s rainfall and existing population level as well as the inhibition of vegetation recovery via grazing pressure need to be taken into consideration before fire management is applied. Electronic supplementary material The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Optimising sampling methods for small mammal communities in Neotropical rainforests

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Climate-induced changes in the small mammal communities of the Northern Great Lakes Region

We use museum and other collection records to document large and extraordinarily rapid changes in the ranges and relative abundance of nine species of mammals in the northern Great Lakes region (white-footed mice, woodland deer mice, southern red-backed voles, woodland jumping mice, eastern chipmunks, least chipmunks, southern flying squirrels, northern flying squirrels, common opossums). These species reach either the southern or the northern limit of their distributions in this region. Changes consistently reflect increases in species of primarily southern distribution (white-footed mice, eastern chipmunks, southern flying squirrels, common opossums) and declines by northern species (woodland deer mice, southern red-backed voles, woodland jumping mice, least chipmunks, northern flying squirrels). White-footed mice and southern flying squirrels have extended their ranges over 225 km since 1980, and at particularly well-studied sites in Michigan's Upper Peninsula, small mammal assemblages have shifted from numerical domination by northern species to domination by southern species. Repeated resampling at some sites suggests that southern species are replacing northern ones rather than simply being added to the fauna. Observed changes are consistent with predictions from climatic warming but not with predictions based on recovery from logging or changes in human populations. Because of the abundance of these focal species (the eight rodent species make up 96.5% of capture records of all forest-dwelling rodents in the region and 70% of capture records of all forest-dwelling small mammals) and the dominating ecological roles they play, these changes substantially affect the composition and structure of forest communities. They also provide an unusually clear example of change that is likely to be the result of climatic warming in communities that are experienced by large numbers of people.     

Patterns in the structure of Asian and North American desert small mammal communities

Aim We compared assemblages of small mammal communities from three major desert regions on two continents in the northern hemisphere. Our objective was to compare these with respect to three characteristics: (1) species richness and representation of trophic groups; (2) the degree to which these assemblages exhibit nested community structure; and (3) the extent to which competitive interactions appear to influence local community assembly. Location We studied small mammal communities from the deserts of North America (N=201 sites) and two regions in Central Asia (the Gobi Desert (N=97 sites) and the Turan Desert Region (N=36 sites), including the Kara-Kum, Kyzyl-Kum, NE Daghestan, and extreme western Kazakhstan Deserts). Method To provide baseline data we characterized each desert region in terms of alpha, beta, and gamma diversity, and in terms of the distribution of taxa across trophic and locomotory groups. We evaluated nestedness of these communities using the Nestedness Temperature Calculator developed by Atmar & Patterson (1993, 1995) , and we evaluated the role of competitive interactions in community assembly and applied a null model of local assembly under varying degrees of competitive interaction ( Kelt et al., 1995, 1996 ). Results All three desert regions have low alpha diversity and high beta diversity. The total number of species in each region varied, being highest in North America, and lowest in the Turan Desert Region. The deserts studied all present evidence of significant nestedness, but the mechanism underlying this structure appears different in North American and Asia. In North America, simulations strongly implicate interspecific competition as a dominant mechanism influencing community and assemblage structure. In contrast, data from Asian desert rodent communities suggest that these are not strongly influenced by competition; in fact, they have greater numbers of ecologically and morphologically similar species than expected. These results appear to reflect strong habitat selection, with positive associations among species that share similar habitat requirements in these communities. Our analyses support earlier reports suggesting that predation and abiotic forces may have greater influences on the assembly and organization of Asian desert rodent communities, whereas interspecific competition dominates assembly processes in North America. Additionally, we suggest that structuring mechanisms may be very different among the two Asian deserts studied. Gobi assemblages appear structured by trophic and locomotory strategies. In contrast, Turan Desert Region assemblages appear to be randomly structured with respect to locomotory strategies. When trophic and locomotory categories are combined, however, Turan species are positively and nonrandomly associated. Main conclusions Very different ecological dynamics evidently exist not only between these continents, but within them as well. These small mammal faunas differ greatly in terms of community structure, but also appear to differ in the underlying mechanisms by which communities are assembled. The underlying role of history and geography are strongly implicated as central features in understanding the evolution of mammalian faunas in different deserts of the world.     

The influence of behaviour and season on habitat selection by a small mammal

This study examined the selection of habitat by Ningaui yvonneae , a small, nocturnal insectivorous marsupial of semi-arid regions of southern Australia. In addition to idengifying habitat preferences, the study was concerned with idengifying how habitats were used, and for what purpose they were valued. Triodia irritans (hummock grass) was the most preferred habitat component overall. However, other habitat components were found to be of equal or greater preference during certain seasons and for certain behaviours. The importance of considering behaviour in studies of habitat selection was discussed. Habitat selection by N. yvonneae appeared to be influenced by predation risk and energetic reward. The selection for Triodia is thought to be due to its provision of protection and foraging opportunities. However, leaf litter was preferred over Triodia for foraging, possibly because it offered greater energetic returns. To minimise predation risk while in leaf litter, ningauis remained close to Triodia and moved larger prey items to the edge of Triodia for consumption.     

Terrestrial export of highly bioavailable carbon from small boreal catchments in spring floods

1. We assessed the terrestrial export of organic carbon, which effectively supported aquatic bacterial production (BP), from small boreal catchments during spring flood. We analysed stream runoff from nine small catchments with different proportions of peat mires and coniferous forests by monitoring the dissolved organic carbon (DOC) flux in combination with conducting bacterial bioassays.
2. Multiple linear regression analysis showed that BP during 7-day-dark bioassays (BP₇; μg C L⁻¹day⁻¹) was explained by both the quantity and quality (low-molecular weight fractions) of the DOC. BP₇ can be used as a measure of export of terrestrial organic carbon that is highly bioavailable.
3. Total export of DOC during spring flood from the different catchments ranged from 20 to 27 kg ha⁻¹ and was negatively correlated to forest cover (%). However, the export of BP₇ carbon was positively correlated to forest cover and varied from about 0.1 kg ha⁻¹ in mire-dominated streams to about 0.2 kg ha⁻¹ in forest-dominated streams.
4. The high bioavailability of forest carbon suggests that forests are the main contributors of BP-supporting carbon in boreal streams although mires have higher area-specific export of DOC.     

Long-term changes of small mammal communities in heterogenous landscapes of Central Europe

Long-term dynamics of small mammal communities are perennial themes in population ecology. However, comprehensive studies on the effect of environmental factors on population dynamics are still rare. Here, we aimed to analyze long-term data on Central European communities of small mammals occurring in two habitats that greatly differed in their structure, successional stages, and forest management. We found a richer community structure in young spruce plantations compared to mature European beech forests. In young spruce plantations, Myodes glareolus and Apodemus flavicollis abundances increased and Sorex araneus abundances decreased during the study period as a result of forest growth and management. Community structure in mature beech forests did not change significantly during the study period. Apodemus flavicollis and Myodes glareolus showed 3- and 5-year population cycles, respectively, and their abundances were simultaneously positively correlated with relative abundance of masts. Weather also played a role, while the effect of snow cover was pronounced only in mountain areas where it negatively affected Microtus agrestis and Sorex araneus abundances, temperature positively and rainfall negatively influenced Myodes glareolus and Apodemus flavicollis abundances across both studied habitats. Our findings document that a complex of environmental factors significantly affects the structure and dynamics of small mammal communities in Central Europe, and both local biotic and abiotic factors should be considered in future studies.     

Roadside habitats: effects on diversity and composition of plant, arthropod, and small mammal communities

Road edge effects cover extensive areas and exert a wide range of ecological influences on nearby plants and animals. Most studies have focused on individual and population level effects of the road edge; less is known about how communities and their functionality are altered in proximity to roads. Here, we studied the effect of road edges on species richness, rarity, endemism, composition, and functional (trophic) classification of communities of plants, ground-dwelling arthropods (beetles, spiders, scorpions, diplopods), and small mammals. The study, conducted in a Mediterranean ecosystem in central Israel, included sampling of these taxa in 10 plots adjacent to a regional road, and in 12 nearby control plots located in a typical shrubland habitat. We found a variety of community level road edge effects on the structure, composition, and function of the studied communities. The extent of effects varied among taxa, but they were generally positive or neutral. For the species-rich taxa (plants, beetles, and spiders), distinct road edge communities characterized by higher richness and altered species composition were found. Rarity and endemism were lower, and the proportion of disturbance-associated plant species was higher at the road edge. Among the species-poor taxa, scorpions and small mammals were more abundant along road edges than in control plots, while diplopods, the only negatively affected taxon, showed decreased abundance along the road. No ecologically meaningful changes in richness or composition were detected for the species-poor taxa along the road edge. Road edges profoundly affect floral and faunal communities, with possible implications for biodiversity conservation.     

The influence of trap density and sampling duration on the detection of small mammal species richness

Assessing species richness of small mammal communities is an important research objective for many live-trapping studies designed to assess or monitor biological diversity. We tested the effectiveness and efficiency of various trap densities for determining estimates and counts of small mammal species richness. Trapping was conducted in grassland habitats in northeastern Kansas during spring and fall of 2002 and 2003. Estimates and counts of species richness were higher at increased trap densities. This effect appeared to be primarily due to the higher number of individuals sampled at higher trap densities. At least 3 nights duration was needed to produce a stable estimate of species richness for the range of trap densities tested (9–144 trap stations/ha). Higher trap densities generally reached stable richness estimates in fewer nights than low density trapping arrangements. Given that counts and estimates of species richness were influenced by trap density and sampling duration, it is critical that these parameters are selected to most effectively meet research objectives.     

The influence of habitat structure and flow permanence on invertebrate communities in karst spring systems

The macroinvertebrate fauna of five karst (limestone) springbrook systems with contrasting physical habitat and discharge patterns were investigated to examine the role of flow permanence and habitat structure on macroinvertebrate community composition. Clear physical differences were identified between perennial and intermittent springs and individual sampling stations. However, flow permanence, water temperature and the input of leaf litter exerted a greater influence on the aquatic invertebrate community than habitat structure. Perennial sites were characterised by a greater abundance of macroinvertebrates and greater Ephemeroptera, Plecoptera and Trichoptera (EPT) richness than intermittent sites. The fauna of all of the springbrook systems examined were dominated by relatively common and ubiquitous taxa (e.g. Gammarus pulex) although a number of taxa displaying life cycle adaptations to ephemeral aquatic habitats (e.g. Limnephilus auricula and Stenophylax permistus) were recorded at intermittent sites.     

Linking changes in small mammal communities to ecosystem functions in an agricultural landscape

Global increases in agricultural production have significant implications for biodiversity and ecosystem processes. In southern Africa, sugarcane production has converted native vegetation into agricultural monocultures. We examined functional group abundance along a conservation-agriculture gradient in the Lowveld of Swaziland. We captured small mammals representing 4 functional groups: omnivores, insectivores, granivores, and herbivores and found evidence of distinct changes in small mammal functional groups across the conservation-agriculture boundary. Granivores declined with increasing distance into the sugarcane and were completely absent at 375 m from the boundary while omnivores increased in the sugarcane. Insectivores and herbivores showed no differences between the two land uses; however, during the dry season, there were significantly more insectivores at the conservation-agriculture interface than in the conservation lands. Shifts in small mammal communities have clear implications for ecosystem processes as the removal of granivores from savannah systems can drastically alter vegetative structure and potentially lead to shrub encroachment via reduced levels of seed predation, while abundant omnivorous small mammals can cause significant crop damage and increase the prevalence of vector borne diseases in the environment.     

Influence of spring floods on the diversity and structure of algae from waters of the Alazeya River basin

Algological research of waters of the Alazeya River basin from headwaters to the mouth during high floods and periods of low water are presented. The species composition, abundance, biomass, ecological-geographical characteristics, and sanitary biological characteristics of the investigated bodies of water are given.     

The small mammal community of Mukogodo Forest, Kenya

Species richness and diversity of rodents and insectivores were investigated at relict forest patches of Mukogodo, Laikipia, Kenya using Sherman's live traps and pitfall traps. Two hundred and nineteen individuals were captured in 3021 trap‐nights. There were eleven species in two taxonomic groups, Rodentia and Insectivora. Two other rodent species were sighted but not captured. Thirteen bats belonging to four species (Epomophorous wahlbergi, Pipistrellus kuhlii, Scotophilus dingani and Nycteris thebaica) were opportunistically trapped using mist nets. Two of the four species accumulation curves for forest patches did not reach an asymptote. Species richness and diversity were highest at Kurikuri compared with other patches because of habitat variability. The results support the prediction that forest disturbance and degradation lead to an increase in generalist species as compared with specialists and highlight the importance of relict afromontane forests in the conservation of small mammals in Kenya.     

DNA barcoding in surveys of small mammal communities: a field study in Suriname

The performance of DNA barcoding as a tool for fast taxonomic verification in ecological assessment projects of small mammals was evaluated during a collecting trip to a lowland tropical rainforest site in Suriname. We also compared the performance of tissue sampling onto FTA CloneSaver cards vs. liquid nitrogen preservation. DNA barcodes from CloneSaver cards were recovered from 85% of specimens, but DNA degradation was apparent, because only 36% of sequence reads were long (over 600 bp). In contrast, cryopreserved tissue delivered 99% barcode recovery (97% > 600 bp). High humidity, oversampling or tissue type may explain the poor performance of CloneSaver cards. Comparison of taxonomic assignments made in the field and from barcode results revealed inconsistencies in just 3.4% of cases and most of the discrepancies were due to field misidentifications (3%) rather than sampling/analytical error (0.5%). This result reinforces the utility of DNA barcoding as a tool for verification of taxonomic identifications in ecological surveys, which is especially important when the collection of voucher specimens is not possible.     

黄河三角洲石油生产对东营湿地底栖动物群落结构和水质生物评价的影响

为了解石油开采对湿地生态系统的影响,2009年10月调查了黄河三角洲东营湿地34个样点的水体物理化学属性和大型底栖无脊椎动物群落结构。共获得3门6纲12目41科70属84个大型底栖无脊椎动物分类单元。Shannon-Wiener多样性指数(r=-0.446,P=0.02)和TN显著负相关,BI指数与理化指标无显著相关性;软体动物分类单元数与盐度(r=-0.422,P=0.028)显著负相关,与pH值(r=0.435,P=0.023)显著正相关;软体动物个体百分数同样与盐度(r=-0.395,P=0.041)呈显著负相关,与pH值(r=0.565,P=0.002)呈极显著正相关;寡毛类分类单元数与TN(r=0.524,P=0.005)极显著正相关。水体石油含量与生物指数无显著相关性。典范对应分析(CCA)显示,TN、pH、盐度是影响东营湿地底栖动物群落结构的主要环境变量,水体石油污染并不是主要的胁迫因子。寡毛类和软体动物是该地区对环境变化的主要指示生物类群。Shannon-Wiener多样性指数水质生物评价结果显示,溢洪河支流、广利河上游、挑河上游、东张水库属于清洁;轻污点位有9个,其余点位为中污或重污。