Evaluation of the eye lens method for age determination in roe deer<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>

Eye lens weight curves were obtained from a sample of 522 male and 171 female free-living roe deerCapreolus capreolus (Linnaeus, 1758), collected during the regular annual harvest 1998/99–2005/06 (May–January) in 12 different field hunting grounds in Vojvodina (North part of Serbia). We found no significant differences in eye lens weight between males and females within the same age class (except age class 1). Thus, the eye lens weight data for both sexes within the same age class were pooled for further analyses. The rate of increase in eye lens weight declined at a relatively early age, but lenses continued to increase in weight through age class 9. However, there was a considerable overlap in ranges of eye lens weights within all age classes, which restricted the usefulness of this method. The estimate precision of the eye lens method in determining age was evaluated by the comparison of “known age” (cementum layer technique) and predicted age (eye lens weight technique). We examined model validity on 78 roe deer not used previously to construct the regression line. The lack of correspondence between the two techniques was evident among individuals within older age classes. The percentage of correctly determined age rapidly declined already from age class 4 (<30%).     

Tick burden on European roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>)

In our study we assessed the tick burden on roe deer (Capreolus capreolus L.) in relation to age, physical condition, sex, deer density and season. The main objective was to find predictive parameters for tick burden. In September 2007, May, July, and September 2008, and in May and July 2009 we collected ticks on 142 culled roe deer from nine forest departments in Southern Hesse, Germany. To correlate tick burden and deer density we estimated deer density using line transect sampling that accounts for different detectability in March 2008 and 2009, respectively. We collected more than 8,600 ticks from roe deer heads and necks, 92.6% of which were Ixodes spp., 7.4% Dermacentor spp. Among Ixodes, 3.3% were larvae, 50.5% nymphs, 34.8% females and 11.4% males, with significant seasonal deviation. Total tick infestation was high, with considerable individual variation (from 0 to 270 ticks/deer). Adult tick burden was positively correlated with roe deer body indices (body mass, age, hind foot length). Significantly more nymphs were found on deer from forest departments with high roe deer density indices, indicating a positive correlation with deer abundance. Overall, tick burden was highly variable. Seasonality and large scale spatial characteristics appeared to be the most important factors affecting tick burden on roe deer.     

Attachment site selection of ticks on roe deer, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>

The spatio-temporal attachment site patterns of ticks feeding on their hosts can be of significance if co-feeding transmission (i.e. from tick to tick without a systemic infection of the host) of pathogens affects the persistence of a given disease. Using tick infestation data on roe deer, we analysed preferred attachment sites and niche width of Ixodes ticks (larvae, nymphs, males, females) and investigated the degree of inter- and intrastadial aggregation. The different development stages showed rather consistent attachment site patterns and relative narrow feeding site niches. Larvae were mostly found on the head and on the front legs of roe deer, nymphs reached highest densities on the head and highest adult densities were found on the neck of roe deer. The tick stages feeding (larvae, nymphs, females) on roe deer showed high degrees of intrastadial spatial aggregation, whereas males did not. Male ticks showed large feeding site overlap with female ticks. Feeding site overlap between larval-female and larval-nymphal ticks did occur especially during the months May–August on the head and front legs of roe deer and might allow pathogen transmission via co-feeding. Tick density, niche width and niche overlap on roe deer are mainly affected by seasonality, reflecting seasonal activity and abundance patterns of ticks. Since different tick development stages occur spatially and temporally clustered on roe deer, transmission experiments of tick-borne pathogens are urgently needed.     

Abundance estimation of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ixodes</Emphasis> ticks (Acari: Ixodidae) on roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>)

Despite the importance of roe deer as a host for Ixodes ticks in central Europe, estimates of total tick burden on roe deer are not available to date. We aimed at providing (1) estimates of life stage and sex specific (larvae, nymphs, males and females, hereafter referred to as tick life stages) total Ixodes burden and (2) equations which can be used to predict the total life stage burden by counting the life stage on a selected body area. Within a period of 1½ years, we conducted whole body counts of ticks from 80 hunter-killed roe deer originating from a beech dominated forest area in central Germany. Averaged over the entire study period (winter 2007–summer 2009), the mean tick burden per roe deer was 64.5 (SE ± 10.6). Nymphs were the most numerous tick life stage per roe deer (23.9 ± 3.2), followed by females (21.4 ± 3.5), larvae (10.8 ± 4.2) and males (8.4 ± 1.5). The individual tick burden was highly aggregated (k = 0.46); levels of aggregation were highest in larvae (k = 0.08), followed by males (k = 0.40), females (k = 0.49) and nymphs (k = 0.71). To predict total life stage specific burdens based on counts on selected body parts, we provide linear equations. For estimating larvae abundance on the entire roe deer, counts can be restricted to the front legs. Tick counts restricted to the head are sufficient to estimate total nymph burden and counts on the neck are appropriate for estimating adult ticks (females and males). In order to estimate the combined tick burden, tick counts on the head can be used for extrapolation. The presented linear models are highly significant and explain 84.1, 77.3, 90.5, 91.3, and 65.3% (adjusted R ²) of the observed variance, respectively. Thus, these models offer a robust basis for rapid tick abundance assessment. This can be useful for studies aiming at estimating effects of abiotic and biotic factors on tick abundance, modelling tick population dynamics, modelling tick-borne pathogen transmission dynamics or assessing the efficacy of acaricides.     

Selection of bed-sites by roe deer<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis> fawns in an agricultural landscape

The vegetation characteristics and habitat selection associated with the bed-sites used by neonatal roe deerCapreolus capreolus (Linnaeus, 1758) fawns were studied in an agricultural environment in central Norway. Data were collected from 85 radio-collared fawns belonging to 38 families during 1992–1994. All bed-sites used provided effective cover, although this differed between habitats and increased during the summer as the herbaceous vegetation developed. Seasonal use of farmland increased and then decreased reflecting the growth, and cutting of the grass. Habitats were not used in relation to their availability. Early born fawns significantly avoided farmland, whereas later born fawns showed no significant selection or avoidance of any habitats. The data show how roe deer fawns are able to exploit small patches of non-cultivated habitats in an agricultural landscape.     

Description and epidemiological implications of <Emphasis Type="Italic">S. scabiei</Emphasis> infection in roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>) originating from chamois (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Rupicapra rupicapra</Emphasis>)

The authors describe a case of Sarcoptes scabiei transmission from a chamois (Rupicapra rupicapra) kid to three roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) fawns kept in captive cohabitation in a wildlife rehabilitation centre for approximately 4 months. Symptoms in the two male fawns started developing 1 week after skin lesions were noticed in the kid, whereas a delayed (75 days later) appearance of scabies signs was observed in the female fawn. A severe generalised form of scabies rapidly developed in a male fawn, but lesions in the other two healed after triple inoculation of ivermectin at 15 days intervals. These roe deer were monitored for specific anti-S. scabiei antibodies with an immunoblotting technique. The strongest antibody response was exhibited during the clinical phase of the infection and then rapidly declined post-treatment. Interestingly, the female fawn developed immunoglobulin G to S. scabiei proteins more than 2 months before the onset of clinical scabies. Since all captive roe deer appeared sensitive to infection with S. scabiei var. rupicaprae, the authors hypothesise that the sporadic frequency of spontaneous scabies in this Cervid host may be attributed to avoidance of direct contacts with moribund or recently dead scabietic chamois, and/or to a self-limiting (and therefore difficult to detect) course of the disease after infrequent infectious contacts and/or exposure to lower infectious doses than in the described episode.     

Effectiveness of odour repellents on red deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Cervus elaphus</Emphasis>) and roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>): a field test

Chemical repellents are promoted as a method to reduce ungulate–vehicle collisions and ungulate browsing damages to agricultural and forestry resources. We tested the effectiveness of two odour repellents (Mota FL and Wolf Urine) on the foraging behaviour and area avoidance of free-ranging roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) and red deer (Cervus elaphus). The effects of the repellents were assessed by comparing deer visitation rates to sand arenas before and after application of repellents and visitation rates to control arenas. Neither of the tested products reduced deer visitation rates. Rapid habituation to olfactory stimuli and lack of sensitivity to predator odours may explain the ineffectiveness of the repellents to alter the behaviour of the deer. The results indicate that the tested products have no effects on roe deer and red deer behaviour and suggest that the effectiveness of the chemical area repellents as a measure to reduce deer–vehicle collision risk and browsing damages is questionable.     

A PCR-RFLP method on faecal samples to distinguish <Emphasis Type="Italic">Martes martes</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Martes foina</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Mustela putorius</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vulpes vulpes</Emphasis>

A non-invasive genetic approach has been recently employed in the population genetics of wild species, using faeces that could be easily collected, particularly of elusive or endangered species. However, faeces of pine (Martes martes) and beech marten (M. foina) can be morphologically similar and could be confused with those of polecat (Mustela putorius) and red fox (Vulpes vulpes). On this basis, a rapid, simple and inexpensive RFLP protocol using a cytochrome b (Cyt b) gene fragment of mtDNA, isolated from faecal samples, was performed to distinguish the above-mentioned species.     

Survival rates and causes of mortality of roe deer <Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis> in a rural landscape,eastern Poland

Game species in the cultural landscapes of Europe are exposed to several sources of anthropogenic pressure. Whilst hunting is part of coordinated wildlife management, poaching is difficult to quantify, and hence, relatively little is known about its impact on survival patterns of game species. We estimated survival and cause-specific mortality rates of 31 roe deer Capreolus capreolus in the surroundings of the Bia?owie?a Primeval Forest, eastern Poland, from 2010 to 2013. The study area consisted of large, extensively used agricultural fields and a mosaic of pine plantations, which were interspersed with natural forest stands and small agricultural fields and meadows. Roe deer were regularly hunted and the forested part of the study area was traversed by large carnivores. Annual survival rate of all deer was 0.69 and did not differ between seasons. Annual survival rates of females and males in each age class (young and adult) were similar. Poaching was a major source of mortality (6 out of 13 roe deer deaths), and poachers did not prefer any sex or age. Adult survival (0.77) was higher than survival of young individuals (0.53); this trend was stronger when poaching was excluded from the analysis. All cases of poaching were recorded between mid-September and February. Although the two parts of the study area were exposed to a similar degree of anthropogenic pressure, all poached individuals occupied home ranges in the mosaic, where the forest cover in home ranges of roe deer was significantly higher than in the field.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Trueperella pyogenes</Emphasis> isolated from a brain abscess of an adult roebuck (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>)

The present study was designed to characterize phenotypically and genotypically a Trueperella pyogenes strain isolated from a brain abscess of an adult roebuck (Capreolus capreolus). The species identity could be confirmed by phenotypical investigations, by MALDI-TOF MS analysis, and by sequencing the 16S ribosomal RNA (rRNA) gene, the 16S–23S rRNA intergenic spacer region (ISR); by sequencing the target genes rpoB, gap, and tuf; and by detection of T. pyogenes chaperonin-encoding gene cpn60 with a previously developed loop-mediated isothermal amplification (LAMP) assay. The T. pyogenes strain could additionally be characterized by PCR-mediated amplification of several known and putative virulence factor-encoding genes which revealed the presence of the genes plo encoding pyolysin and nanH and nanP encoding neuraminidases; the genes fimA, fimC, and fimE encoding the fimbrial subunits FimA, FimC, and FimE; and the gene cbpA encoding collagen-binding protein CbpA. The present data give a detailed characterization of a T. pyogenes strain isolated from a brain abscess of a roebuck. However, the route of infection of the roebuck remains unclear.     

Demographic crash associated with high parasite load in an experimental roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>) population

In March 2002, ten roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) were released in a partly wooded 14.2-ha enclosure to investigate the effect of high population density on vegetation cover and demographic parameters. However, in mid 2003, five animals died after rapid emaciation. Two other deer were killed to carry out further post-mortem examination. In addition to a general loss of body mass and injuries in males caused by the healthiest of them, we found a high level of parasitism. The remaining animals received anti-parasite treatment, and four other treated roe deer were added into the enclosure. All the deer were then captured and treated against parasites twice a year, the fawns being removed when first captured. Four years after the crash, the population seemed healthy: deaths no longer occurred; mean adult body mass reached 27.6 kg in March; females produced on average 1.6 fawns per year, with a mean body mass of 13.8 kg in October and 16.7 kg in March. Furthermore, undergrowth cover changed little since March 2004. These results suggest that outbursts of parasites may cause population crashes in high-density situations before the onset of nutritive stress and may explain certain cases of ‘abnormal’ (massive) mortality recorded in roe deer.     

Calibration of remotely collected acceleration data with behavioral observations of roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis> L.)

Long-term, remote monitoring of animals under natural conditions is essential for obtaining information on animal activity. Advances in biotelemetry have led to the construction of low-power accelerometers placed on Global Positioning System (GPS) collars. Such acceleration data from roe deer have not yet been classified to the various behavioral categories. Here, we determined the threshold values of such data for different behavioral categories. We equipped captive roe deer with Global Positioning System–Global System for Mobile Communications/dual-axis acceleration sensor neck collars and simultaneously measured their movement and observed their behavior. The difference between feeding and slow locomotion was significant on the x- but not the y-axis, and both of these two behavioral categories differed significantly from resting and fast locomotion. Specific thresholds for the behavioral categories—resting, feeding, and slow and fast locomotion—were established by recursive partitioning. We compared the behavior determined by these threshold values with observed behavior and found that 92% of the behavioral categories were correctly assigned. A comparison of our results with those of earlier studies showed that thresholds derived for one species cannot be directly applied to another species. We provide recommendations for the further development of acceleration sensors based on the results obtained in this study.     

New combinations and typifications in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bistorta</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Persicaria</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Polygonum,</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rumex</Emphasis> (Polygonaceae)

New combinations are proposed in anticipation of the Polygonaceae treatment in the forthcoming volume of Intermountain Flora: Polygonum kelloggii var. esotericum, P. kelloggii var. watsonii , Rumex densiflorus var. pycnanthus , R. salicifolius var. utahensis, and R. occidentalis var. tomentellus. Typifications are proposed to facilitate ongoing studies in Polygonaceae and to maintain current usage.     

Bio-resolution of glycidyl (<Emphasis Type="Italic">o</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">m</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">p</Emphasis>)-methylphenyl ethers by <Emphasis Type="Italic">Bacillus megaterium</Emphasis>

A newly isolated Bacillus megaterium with epoxide hydrolase activity resolved racemic glycidyl (o, m, p)-methylphenyl ethers to give enantiopure epoxides in 84–99% enantiomeric excess and with 21–73 enantiomeric ratios. The (S)-enantiomer was obtained from rac-glycidyl (o or m)-methylphenyl ether while the (R)-epoxides was obtained from glycidyl p-methylphenyl ether. The observations are explained at the level by enzyme-substrate docking studies.     

The effect of environmental gradients on the bed site selection of roe deer (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Capreolus capreolus</Emphasis>)

A wildlife species’ selection of bedding sites is often characterised by strong trade-offs, as habitat quality, predator avoidance and foraging needs should be achieved simultaneously. Human activities often represent major threats in addition. In areas of intensive agriculture, e.g. mowing is one of the main causes of mortality of roe deer (Capreolus capreolus) fawns due their hiding strategy. For a species’ offspring, the selection of bedding sites is particularly crucial and thus, identifying how and when animals use such habitats is important for management. We used a long-term dataset of marked roe deer fawns in Switzerland (1971–2015) to reveal the characteristics of optimal bedding sites within the first two weeks of a fawn’s life in three contrasting landscapes and the potential trade-offs that may occur. We hypothesised that roe deer adjust the selection of bedding sites to current environmental conditions and available habitat to achieve sufficient levels of predator avoidance and thermoregulation necessary for the fawn’s survival, as well as the availability of sufficient food resources for the mother doe. We found that, in general, grassland habitats with medium vegetation height (20–50 cm) and habitats in close proximity to the edge of the forest were favoured to achieve those basic requirements. However, the use of bed site habitats differed between the three contrasting landscapes in dependence of elevation and hence vegetation phenology. Our results provide essential information to reduce mortality rates caused by mowing and improve the reproductive success of this species.     

Floral development and systematic position of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Arillastrum</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Allosyncarpia</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Stockwellia</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Eucalyptopsis</Emphasis> (Myrtaceae)

We have investigated the floral ontogeny of Arillastrum, Allosyncarpia, Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis (of the eucalypt group, Myrtaceae) using scanning electron microscopy and light microscopy. Several critical characters for establishing relationships between these genera and to the eucalypts have been determined. The absence of compound petaline primordia in Arillastrum, Allosyncarpia, Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis excludes these taxa from the eucalypt clade. Post-anthesis circumscissile abscission of the hypanthium above the ovary in Stockwellia, Eucalyptopsis and Allosyncarpia is evidence that these three taxa form a monophyletic group; undifferentiated perianth parts and elongated fusiform buds are characters that unite Stockwellia and Eucalyptopsis as sister taxa. No floral characters clearly associate Arillastrum with either the eucalypt clade or the clade of Stockwellia, Eucalyptopsis and Allosyncarpia.We gratefully acknowledge Clyde Dunlop and Bob Harwood (Northern Territory Herbarium) for collecting specimens of Allosyncarpia, and Bruce Gray (Atherton) for collecting specimens of Stockwellia. The Australian National Herbarium (CANB) kindly lent herbarium specimens of Eucalyptopsis for examination. This research was supported by a University of Melbourne Research Development Grant to Andrew Drinnan.     

Phylogenetic analyses of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Uromyces viciae-fabae</Emphasis> and its varieties on <Emphasis Type="Italic">Vicia</Emphasis>, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Lathyrus</Emphasis>, and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pisum</Emphasis> in Japan

A pea rust fungus, Uromyces viciae-fabae, has been classified into two varieties, var. viciae-fabae and var. orobi, based on differences in urediniospore wall thickness and putative host specificity in Japan. In principal component analyses, morphological features of urediniospores and teliospores of 94 rust specimens from Vicia, Lathyrus, and Pisum did not show definite host-specific morphological groups. In molecular analyses, 23 Uromyces specimens from Vicia, Lathyrus, and Pisum formed a single genetic clade based on D1/D2 and ITS regions. Four isolates of U. viciae-fabae from V. cracca and V. unijuga could infect and sporulate on P. sativum. These results suggest that U. viciae-fabae populations on different host plants are not biologically differentiated into groups that can be recognized as varieties.Contribution no. 184, Laboratory of Plant Parasitic Mycology, Institute of Agriculture and Forestry, University of Tsukuba, Japan     

A new methanol assimilating yeast, <Emphasis Type="Italic">Ogataea</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">parapolymorpha</Emphasis>, the ascosporic state of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Candida</Emphasis><Emphasis Type="Italic">parapolymorpha</Emphasis>

Ogataea parapolymorpha sp. n. (NRRL YB-1982, CBS 12304, type strain), the ascosporic state of Candida parapolymorpha, is described. The species appears homothallic, assimilates methanol as is typical of most Ogataea species and forms hat-shaped ascospores in asci that become deliquescent. O. parapolymorpha is closely related to Ogataea angusta and Ogataea polymorpha. The three species can be resolved from gene sequence analyses but are unresolved from fermentation and growth reactions that are typically used for yeast identification. On the basis of multiple isolates, O. angusta is known only from California, USA, in association with Drosophila and Aulacigaster flies, O. parapolymorpha is predominantly associated with insect frass from trees in the eastern USA but O. polymorpha has been isolated from various substrates in the USA, Brazil, Spain and Costa Rica.