Borano-nucleotides: new analogues to circumvent HIV-1 RT-mediated nucleoside drug-resistance

Alpha-boranophosphates suppress RT-mediated resistance when the catalytic rate of incorporation (kpol) of the analogue 5'-triphosphate is responsable for drug resistance, such as in the case of K65R mutant and ddNTPs, and Q151M toward AZTTP and ddNTPs. This suppression is also observed with BH3-d4T and BH3-3TC toward their clinically relevant mutants Q151M and M184V. Moreover, the presence of the borano (BH3-) group renders the incorporation of the analogue independent from amino-acid substitutions in RT. To our knowledge, this is the first example of rescue of polymerase activity by means of a nucleotide analogue.     

A conserved Tyr residue is required for sugar selectivity in a Pol alpha DNA polymerase

Many DNA polymerases select their natural substrates, deoxy- as opposed to ribonucleoside triphosphates, with a selectivity greater than 10000-fold. The function of a highly conserved residue, Tyr416, in the palm domain of the parental enzyme, an exo(-) derivative of RB69 DNA polymerase (gp43), a member of the pol alpha DNA polymerase family, was examined for its role in helping the polymerase discriminate between ribo-, dideoxyribo-, and deoxyribonucleoside triphosphates. The parental enzyme selected dNTPs vs rNTPs with about the same preference as dNTPs vs ddNTPs. Pre-steady-state kinetic analysis was carried out with the parental enzyme and two mutants, Y416A and Y416F. The Y416A mutant incorporated ribonucleotide residues much more efficiently than the parental enzyme, whereas the Y416F mutant was more permissive toward ddNTP vs rNTP utilization than either the Y416A mutant or the parental enzyme. We also found that both dCDP and rCDP inhibited dCTP incorporation by the Y416A mutant, while only dCDP but not rCDP inhibited dCTP incorporation by the parental enzyme and the Y416F mutant. The parental enzyme and the Y416A and Y416F mutants were all able to add araCTP (1-beta-D-arabinofuranosylcytosine-5'-triphosphate) to a primer but with reduced efficiency relative to dCTP. Based on our kinetic results, interpreted in the context of the crystal structure of the RB69 gp43 ternary complex, we suggest that sugar discrimination is provided mainly by the Tyr416 side chain which can sterically block the 2'-OH group of an incoming rNTP.     

Glutamine-181 is crucial in the enzymatic activity and substrate specificity of human endoplasmic-reticulum aminopeptidase-1

ERAP-1 (endoplasmic-reticulum aminopeptidase-1) is a multifunctional enzyme with roles in the regulation of blood pressure, angiogenesis and the presentation of antigens to MHC class I molecules. Whereas the enzyme shows restricted specificity toward synthetic substrates, its substrate specificity toward natural peptides is rather broad. Because of the pathophysiological significance of ERAP-1, it is important to elucidate the molecular basis of its enzymatic action. In the present study we used site-directed mutagenesis to identify residues affecting the substrate specificity of human ERAP-1 and identified Gln(181) as important for enzymatic activity and substrate specificity. Replacement of Gln(181) by aspartic acid resulted in a significant change in substrate specificity, with Q181D ERAP-1 showing a preference for basic amino acids. In addition, Q181D ERAP-1 cleaved natural peptides possessing a basic amino acid at the N-terminal end more efficiently than did the wild-type enzyme, whereas its cleavage of peptides with a non-basic amino acid was significantly reduced. Another mutant enzyme, Q181E, also revealed some preference for peptides with a basic N-terminal amino acid, although it had little hydrolytic activity toward the synthetic peptides tested. Other mutant enzymes, including Q181N and Q181A ERAP-1s, revealed little enzymatic activity toward synthetic or peptide substrates. These results indicate that Gln(181) is critical for the enzymatic activity and substrate specificity of ERAP-1.     

Biosynthesis of Biotin-vitamers from Oleic Acid by Cryptococcus neoformans

Chitosanase (ChoA) from Mitsuaria chitosanitabida 3001 was successfully evolved with secretion efficiency and thermal stability. The inactive ChoA mutant (G151D) gene was used to mutate by an error-prone PCR technique and mutant genes that restored chitosanase activity were isolated. Two desirable mutants, designated M5S and M7T, were isolated. Two amino acids, Leu74 and Val75, in the signal peptide of ChoA were changed to Gln and Ile respectively in the M7T mutant, in addition to the G151D mutation. The L74Q/V75I double ChoA mutant was 1.5-fold higher in specific activity than wild-type ChoA due to efficient secretion of ChoA. One amino acid Asn222 was changed to Ser in the M5S mutant in addition to the G151D mutation. The N222S single ChoA mutant was 1.2-fold higher in specific activity and showed a 17% increase in thermal stability at 50 °C as compared with wild-type ChoA. This is the first study to achieve an evolutional increase in enzyme capability among chitosanses.     

BORANO-NUCLEOTIDES: NEW ANALOGUES TO CIRCUMVENT HIV-1 RT-MEDIATED NUCLEOSIDE DRUG-RESISTANCE

α-Boranophosphates suppress RT-mediated resistance when the catalytic rate of incorporation (kpol) of the analogue 5′-triphosphate is responsable for drug resistance, such as in the case of K65R mutant and ddNTPs, and Q151M toward AZTTP and ddNTPs. This suppression is also observed with BH₃-d4T and BH3-3TC toward their clinically relevant mutants Q151M and M184V. Moreover, the presence of the borano (BH₃ ^?) group renders the incorporation of the analogue independent from amino-acid substitutions in RT. To our knowledge, this is the first example of rescue of polymerase activity by means of a nucleotide analogue.     

Directed evolution to enhance secretion efficiency and thermostability of chitosanase from Mitsuaria chitosanitabida 3001

Chitosanase (ChoA) from Mitsuaria chitosanitabida 3001 was successfully evolved with secretion efficiency and thermal stability. The inactive ChoA mutant (G151D) gene was used to mutate by an error-prone PCR technique and mutant genes that restored chitosanase activity were isolated. Two desirable mutants, designated M5S and M7T, were isolated. Two amino acids, Leu74 and Val75, in the signal peptide of ChoA were changed to Gln and Ile respectively in the M7T mutant, in addition to the G151D mutation. The L74Q/V75I double ChoA mutant was 1.5-fold higher in specific activity than wild-type ChoA due to efficient secretion of ChoA. One amino acid Asn222 was changed to Ser in the M5S mutant in addition to the G151D mutation. The N222S single ChoA mutant was 1.2-fold higher in specific activity and showed a 17% increase in thermal stability at 50 degrees C as compared with wild-type ChoA. This is the first study to achieve an evolutional increase in enzyme capability among chitosanses.     

Active site mutants of Drosophila melanogaster multisubstrate deoxyribonucleoside kinase.

The multisubstrate deoxyribonucleoside kinase of Drosophila melanogaster (Dm-dNK) is sequence-related to three human deoxyribonucleoside kinases and to herpes simplex virus type-1 thymidine kinase. Dm-dNK phosphorylates both purine and pyrimidine deoxyribonucleosides and nucleoside analogues although it has a preference for pyrimidine nucleosides. We performed site-directed mutagenesis on residues that, based on structural data, are involved in substrate recognition. The aim was to increase the phosphorylation efficiency of purine nucleoside substrates to create an improved enzyme to be used in suicide gene therapy. A Q81N mutation showed a relative increase in deoxyguanosine phosphorylation compared with the wild-type enzyme although the efficiency of deoxythymidine phosphorylation was 10-fold lower for the mutant. In addition to residue Q81 the function of amino acids N28, I29 and F114 was investigated by different substitutions. All of the mutated enzymes showed decreased efficiency of thymidine phosphorylation in comparison with the wild-type enzyme supporting their importance for substrate binding and/or catalysis as proposed by the recently solved structure of Dm-dNK.     

Gln212, Asn270, and Arg301 are critical for catalysis by adenylosuccinate lyase from Bacillus subtilis

In adenylosuccinate lyase from Bacillus subtilis, Gln(212), Asn(270), and Arg(301) are conserved and located close to the succinyl moiety of docked adenylosuccinate. We constructed mutant enzymes with Gln(212) replaced by Glu and Met, Asn(270) by Asp and Leu, and Arg(301) by Gln or Lys. The wild-type and mutant enzymes were expressed in Escherichia coli and purified to homogeneity. The specific activities of the Q212M and the 270 and 301 mutant enzymes were decreased more than 3000-fold as compared to the wild type. Only Q212E retained sufficient activity for determination of its kinetic parameters: V(max) was decreased approximately 1000-fold, and K(m) was increased 6-fold, as compared to the wild-type enzyme. Adenylosuccinate binding studies of the other mutants revealed greatly weakened affinities that contributed to, but did not account entirely for, the loss of activity. These mutant enzymes did not differ greatly from the wild-type enzyme in secondary structure or subunit association state, as shown by circular dichroism spectroscopy and light-scattering photometry. Incubation of pairs of inactive mutant enzymes led to reconstitution of some functional sites by subunit complementation, with recovery of up to 25% of the specific activity of the wild-type enzyme. Subunit complementation occurs only if the two mutations are contributed to the active site by different subunits. Thus, mixing Q212E with N270L enzyme yielded a specific activity of approximately 20% of the wild-type enzyme, while mixing Q212M with R301K enzyme did not restore activity. As supported by computer modeling, the studies presented here indicate that Gln(212), Asn(270), and Arg(301) are indispensable to catalysis by adenylosuccinate lyase and probably interact noncovalently with the carboxylate anions of the substrates 5-aminoimidazole-4(N-succinylocarboxamide)ribonucleotide and adenylosuccinate, optimizing their bound orientations.