Absence of seasonal variation in great tit offspring sex ratios

When the timing of breeding affects the reproductive value of sons and daughters differently, parents are expected to increase their fitness by changing the offspring sex ratio during the course of the breeding season. Previous studies have shown that in great tits Parus major hatching date has a stronger effect on the fitness of juvenile males than on that of juvenile females. We tested whether this difference was reflected in a seasonal decline in the proportion of sons per breeding attempt. Although offspring sex ratio was more variable than would be expected from a binomial distribution, there was no significant relationship between the proportion of sons and the laying date of the clutch. Moreover, individual females did not adjust the sex ratio of their offspring following an experimental delay of breeding. This study therefore fails to demonstrate adaptive seasonal variation in great tit offspring sex ratios.     

A simple model for adaptive variation in the sex ratios of mammalian offspring

We present a simple mathematical model that describes how primary and secondary sex ratios of offspring may vary adaptively in order to maintain equal numbers of the sexes at the age of reproductive maturity. The model postulates that the sex of an offspring depends probabilistically on a weighted linear combination of maternal testosterone and male vulnerability. The model operates at population level, and is based on three physiological phenomena: first that maternal testosterone in follicular fluid is normally distributed, with levels above the mean more likely to be associated with the conception of males; secondly, that males are more vulnerable than females from conception onwards; and thirdly that under conditions of chronic stress, increased secretion of female testosterone coincides with increased male vulnerability. Thus during times of chronic stress, more males are conceived, but their number of live births is moderated by increased male loss. Variations in secondary sex ratios should therefore be related not only to the stressfulness of environmental conditions, but also to the timing of changes in stressfulness.     

Programming the offspring of the pig by prenatal social stress: neuroendocrine activity and behaviour

This study provides evidence in the pig that stress experienced during gestation has long-lasting effects on offspring daughters, including their maternal behaviour. Thirty-six primiparous sows were divided into control and two groups that were stressed (by social mixing) during either the second (Mix 2) or third (Mix 3) trimester of pregnancy. We found detrimental effects of mixing on the mothers' growth, body lesions, and cortisol secretion, but did not observe any significant effects on reproductive parameters including birth weight. At 60 days of age, 48 daughters were randomly selected from the three treatments: half were challenged using a restraint and isolation test. Then, all were culled and brain tissue was collected. In situ hybridisation measurements showed increased expression of CRH mRNA in the PVN in unrestrained Mix 2 and in the amygdala of Mix 2 and Mix 3 daughters. At 67 days, 24 further daughters were mixed to measure their responses to this social stress. All showed increased salivary cortisol secretion, but Mix 2 and Mix 3 daughters showed a greater and longer response than controls. Finally, all 24 were inseminated and at parturition maternal behaviour was measured. Mix 2 and Mix 3 daughters were more restless and more responsive to piglets that approached the head of the sow, traits which previously have been shown to be a component of abnormal maternal behaviour. Indeed, Mix 2 and Mix 3 daughters also tended to bite at their piglets more than control daughters.     

Evolutionary mechanisms of rib loss in anurans: a comparative developmental approach

ABSTRACT The presence of free ribs is presumed to be a primitive morphological character observed only in a few families of Recent anurans, whereas the absence of ribs has been considered to be a derived condition that is widespread within this order. A comparative study of rib development based on representatives of several anuran lineages (Alytes, Bombina, Bufo, Discoglossus, Hyla, Pelobates, Pelodytes, Rana, and Xenopus) reveals a previously undetected diversity of developmental features in the formation and interaction between neural arches and ribs. The absence of free ribs at premetamorphic or later stages is verified in some groups, but we present for the first time evidence of the existence of larval rib rudiments in others, both in the anterior (Rana, Hyla) and posterior (Bufo, Discoglossus, Pelobates) presacral regions. Heterochrony seems to have played a major role in the processes underlying rib reduction. The intracolumnar differences between anterior (V(2)-V(4)) and posterior (V(5)-V(8)) regions are based on perturbations in the timing of early differentiation. Furthermore, a clear shift in the relative timing of ossification among evolutionary lineages was detected. In this respect Xenopus has a highly derived condition. The use of the morphological character of "rib loss" in phylogenetic analyses must be reconsidered due to the different convergent developmental paths described here. The phylogenetic analysis of a "sequence units" matrix of rib development is compared with current anuran phylogenies. Some evolutionary information appears to be clearly present in the ontogenetic data of this "missing morphology," but its value for evolutionary inferences is rather limited.     

Salt stress adaptation of Bacillus subtilis: a physiological proteomics approach

The adaptation to osmotic stress is crucial for growth and survival of Bacillus subtilis in its natural ecosystem. Dual channel imaging and warping of 2-D protein gels were used to visualize global changes in the protein synthesis pattern of cells in response to osmotic stress (6% NaCl). Many vegetative enzymes were repressed in response to salt stress and derepressed after resumption of growth. The enzymes catalyzing the metabolic steps from glucose to 2-oxoglutarate, however, were almost constantly synthesized during salt stress despite the growth arrest. This indicates an enhanced need for the proline precursor glutamate. The synthesis of enzymes involved in sulfate assimilation and in the formation of Fe-S clusters was also induced, suggesting an enhanced need for the formation or repair of Fe-S clusters in response to salt stress. One of the most obvious changes in the protein synthesis profile can be followed by the very strong induction of the SigB regulon. Furthermore, members of the SigW regulon and of the PerR regulon, indicating oxidative stress after salt challenge, were also induced. This proteomic approach provides an overview of cell adaptation to an osmotic upshift in B. subtilis visualizing the most dramatic changes in the protein synthesis pattern.     

Interaction between maternal effects: onset of incubation and offspring sex in two populations of a passerine bird

Maternal phenotype and maternal environment can profoundly affect the phenotype and fitness of offspring. Yet the causes of variation in such maternal effects are rarely known. Embryos in avian eggs cannot develop without being incubated and this creates an opportunity for maternal control of duration and onset of offspring development. However, females might adjust the start of incubation (e.g., coincident with the first egg or delayed until after egg-laying) in response to environmental conditions that they experience at the time of breeding. We studied two populations of the house finch ( Carpodacus mexicanus) that breed at the climatic extremes of the species' geographical range (Montana and Alabama) and found that in both populations, the timing of incubation onset was closely associated with the bias in the sequence in which male and female eggs were laid within a clutch. When females started incubation with the first egg, they produced sons and daughters in highly biased sequence, when females delayed the onset of incubation until after the egg-laying, the sequence of sons and daughters was not biased. Because in both populations, onset of incubation was associated with the ambient temperature, these results emphasize that maternal effects on offspring can be influenced by ecological conditions experienced by parental generation.     

Female‐biased offspring sex ratios in birds at a mercury‐contaminated river

Mercury is a ubiquitous environmental pollutant that can negatively impact physiology and behavior of vertebrates, causing sub‐lethal changes in condition and reducing fitness. Here we examine its effect on offspring sex ratio. Previous studies demonstrate the ability of environmental contaminants to skew sex ratios in wild populations toward the production of females, and research in humans has demonstrated a decrease in male births following mercury exposure. We therefore hypothesized that female birds inhabiting the floodplain of a mercury‐contaminated river would produce broods more biased towards the production of females relative to birds from uncontaminated areas. We examined complete broods of three species: the aquatic‐feeding belted kingfisher Megaceryle alcyon, the terrestrial‐feeding eastern bluebird Sialia sialis, and the tree swallow Tachycineta bicolor, which feeds from both aquatic and terrestrial sources. Nestling sex ratios were shifted toward the production of females in all three species on mercury‐contaminated sites when compared to uncontaminated reference sites. These results may be explained by endocrine disruption or the Trivers–Willard theory of sex allocation. Our study is the first to examine the impact of mercury on offspring sex ratios in birds, and therefore contributes to our understanding of the potential for this persistent biomagnifying contaminant to alter fitness and effective population size in wildlife.     

Adjustment of offspring sex ratios in relation to the availability of resources for philopatric offspring in the common brushtail possum

The local-resource-competition hypothesis predicts that where philopatric offspring compete for resources with their mothers, offspring sex ratios will be biased in favour of the dispersing sex. This should produce variation in sex ratios between populations in relation to differences in the availability of resources for philopatric offspring. However, previous tests of local resource competition in mammals have used indirect measures of resource availability and have focused on sex-ratio variation between species or individuals rather than between local populations. Here, we show that the availability of den sites predicts the offspring sex ratio in populations of the common brushtail possum. Female possums defend access to dens, and daughters, but not sons, occupy dens within their mother's range. However, the abundances of possums in our study areas were determined principally by food availability. Consequently, in food-rich areas with a high population density, the per-capita availability of dens was low, and the cost of having a daughter should have been high. This cost was positively correlated with male bias in the sex ratio at birth. Low per capita availability of dens was correlated with male bias in the sex ratio at birth.     

Respiratory ultradian rhythms of mean and low frequencies: a comparative physiological approach

Recent developments in human rhythmic respiratory pathology lead to this review of the literature for ultradian rhythms of middle and low frequencies, that is having periods longer than the usual respiratory rates, whose periods are seconds or fractions of seconds. Ultradian respiratory movements for respiratory periods (5 less than tau less than 50 min) have been reported in many species of small laboratory animals (mice, rats, guinea-pigs, rabbits, quails). Long-period respiratory rates (20 less than tau less than 90 min) have been found in human fetuses and infants. But they are more difficult to detect in human adults, except during sleep where they have been related to REM and NONREM activities. These respiratory rhythms of middle and low frequencies are supposed to result from dissipative energy structures related to surface-volume relationships, with interlocking chemical clocks, and to be relevant to a basic rest-activity cycle.     

Effects of time-dependent competition for oviposition sites on clutch sizes and offspring sex ratios in a fig wasp

Fig wasps have been known as one of the best-documented examples of female-biased sex ratio predicted from the local mate competition (LMC) theory. However, observed sex ratios appear more female-biased than predicted. Before a close match between theory and observation can be claimed, the number and sex ratio of offspring left by each foundress in a multi-foundress syconium need to be determined. We examined the clutch size and sex ratio of individual females of the pollinator fig wasp Blastophaga nipponica (Agaonidae) in experiments using a pair of fertile and sterile females in which sequence and time interval of entering syconia were manipulated. To determine the number and sex ratio of offspring left by each foundress in a multi-foundress syconium, we prepared sterilized females that could oviposit ordinarily but whose offspring could not develop at all, by irradiating the females with ⁶⁰Co gamma rays. Female fig wasps contributed different numbers and sex ratios of offspring to the total brood within a syconium, due to different entry times among them. The variation in clutch sizes with different entry times appeared to be caused by competition for oviposition sites, and sex ratios to be adjusted according to the clutch size.     

Identifying non-sperm particles during flow cytometric physiological assessment: a simple approach

Flow cytometry is now being used more frequently to determine sperm functional characteristics during semen assessment for artificial insemination. With this methodology, viable and potentially functional cells are detected as unstained events differentiated from non-sperm events through their light-scattering characteristics. However, it can be shown mathematically that identification of sperm on the basis of light scatter leads to significant overestimation of unstained viable cells and underestimation of responding cells in tests of sperm function (subpopulations expressing different fluorescence patterns). We have developed a simple and cost-efficient flow cytometric approach for identifying non-sperm particles that can be carried out in parallel with functional assessments. Our method is based on the sperm's osmotic intolerance. Diluted in water, lethal osmotic shock causes major damage to the cell membranes, and all sperm will stain with propidium iodide (PI). Particulate material which is not PI-positive can then be quantitatively evaluated by FACS analysis and the results substituted in mathematical equations to provide true values for sperm counts and subpopulations. In practical tests, the percentage of non-sperm particles determined by this technique was closely comparable to the figure obtained either by SYBR14^®/PI staining or by PI/CFDA staining. As well as being valuable with respect to tests of sperm function, the procedure is also suitable for obtaining accurate sperm counts during routine semen evaluation.     

The activity of a single muscle sympathetic vasoconstrictor nerve unit is affected by physiological stress in humans

Recording of neural firing from single-unit muscle sympathetic nerve activity (MSNA) is a new strategy offering information about the frequency of pure sympathetic firing. However, it is uncertain whether and when single-unit MSNA would be more useful than multiunit MSNA for analysis of various physiological stresses in humans. In 15 healthy subjects, we measured single-unit and multiunit MSNA before and during handgrip exercise at 30% of maximum voluntary contraction for 3 min and during the Valsalva maneuver at 40 mmHg expiratory pressure for 15 s. Shapes of individual single-unit MSNA were proved to be consistent and suitable for further evaluation. Single-unit and multiunit MSNA exhibited similar responses during handgrip exercise. However, acceleration of neural firing determined from single-unit MSNA became steeper than multiunit MSNA during the Valsalva maneuver. During the Valsalva maneuver, unlike handgrip exercise, the distribution of multiunit burst between 0, 1, 2, 3, and 4 spikes was significantly shifted toward multiple spikes within a given burst (P < 0.05). These results indicated that evaluation of single-unit MSNA could provide more detailed and accurate information concerning the role and responses of neuronal discharges induced by various physiological stresses in humans, especially amid intense sympathetic activity.     

Adaptive adjustment of offspring sex ratio and maternal reproductive effort in an iteroparous mammal

Large mammals in seasonal environments have a pattern of high-reproductive synchrony in spring, but how the timing of reproduction affects resource allocation decisions at different stages of the reproductive cycle remains largely unexplored. By manipulating the timing of conception in reindeer (Rangifer tarandus), we tested how the timing of conception affected sex ratio, gestation length and weight development of mother and offspring. Females that conceived at their first ovulation within the rut had a 60.5% probability of producing a male; in contrast, females that conceived a cycle later had a 31.3% probability of producing a male. Late conceiving females had gestation times that were 10 days shorter and the calves were 0.6 kg (9.2%) lighter at birth and 7.4 kg (14.7%) lighter in autumn. Over the year, female weight changes was similar between the groups suggesting reindeer follow a bet-hedging strategy; reducing the quality of this year's offspring to ensure their own future reproduction and survival. Harvesting is often selective leading to skewed sex ratios and age structure, which may influence the timing of reproduction due to females hesitation to mate with young males. Whenever this hesitation is strong enough to increase the frequency of recycling, harvesting is likely to have profound life history consequences.     

Relative costs of offspring sex and offspring survival in a polygynous mammal

Costs of reproduction are expected to be ubiquitous in wild animal populations and understanding the drivers of variation in these costs is an important aspect of life-history evolution theory. We use a 43 year dataset from a wild population of red deer to examine the relative importance of two factors that influence the costs of reproduction to mothers, and to test whether these costs vary with changing ecological conditions. Like previous studies, our analyses indicate fitness costs of lactation: mothers whose calves survived the summer subsequently showed lower survival and fecundity than those whose calves died soon after birth, accounting for 5% and 14% of the variation in mothers'' survival and fecundity, respectively. The production of a male calf depressed maternal survival and fecundity more than production of a female, but accounted for less than 1% of the variation in either fitness component. There was no evidence for any change in the effect of calf survival or sex with increasing population density.     

Adaptive biases in offspring sex ratios established before birth in a marsupial, the common brushtail possum Trichosurus vulpecula

Offspring sex ratios in the common brushtail possum are malebiased in many populations, and there is evidence that inter-populationdifferences in sex ratios represent adaptive responses to localconditions. However, how these biases are produced is not known.Using comparisons between populations with and without biasedoffspring sex ratios, we show that biases in this species arenot produced by sex-differential mortality between birth andweaning or sex-selective termination of pregnancy. Rather,adjustment in the sex ratio of offspring are evidently dueto shifts in the probability of conceiving male and femaleoffspring.     

Split sex ratios in the social Hymenoptera: a meta-analysis

The study of sex allocation in social Hymenoptera (ants, bees,and wasps) provides an excellent opportunity for testing kin-selectiontheory and studying conflict resolution. A queen–workerconflict over sex allocation is expected because workers aremore related to sisters than to brothers, whereas queens areequally related to daughters and sons. If workers fully controlsex allocation, split sex ratio theory predicts that colonieswith relatively high or low relatedness asymmetry (the relatednessof workers to females divided by the relatedness of workersto males) should specialize in females or males, respectively.We performed a meta-analysis to assess the magnitude of adaptivesex allocation biasing by workers and degree of support forsplit sex ratio theory in the social Hymenoptera. Overall, variationin relatedness asymmetry (due to mate number or queen replacement)and variation in queen number (which also affects relatednessasymmetry in some conditions) explained 20.9% and 5% of thevariance in sex allocation among colonies, respectively. Theseresults show that workers often bias colony sex allocation intheir favor as predicted by split sex ratio theory, even iftheir control is incomplete and a large part of the variationamong colonies has other causes. The explanatory power of splitsex ratio theory was close to that of local mate competitionand local resource competition in the few species of socialHymenoptera where these factors apply. Hence, three of the mostsuccessful theories explaining quantitative variation in sexallocation are based on kin selection.     

The assessment of stress phase objective criteria in humans

The stress reactions phases have been studied in humans in psychoemotional strain. The stress reactions phases objective criteria associated with certain cardiac rhythm variability alterations and cognitive function have been revealed. The study was performed using computerized Stroop-test.