DNA binding analysis of glucocorticoid receptor specificity mutants.

The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) DNA binding domain consists of several conserved amino acids and folds into two zinc finger-like structures. Previous transactivation experiments indicated that three amino acids residing in this region, Gly, Ser and Val, appear to be critical for target-site discrimination. Based on the solved crystal structure, these residues are at the beginning of an amphipathic alpha-helix that interacts with the DNA's major groove; of these, only valine, however, contacts DNA. In order to examine their functional role directly, we have substituted these residues for the corresponding amino acids from the estrogen receptor (ER), overexpressed and purified the mutant proteins, and assayed their binding specificity and affinity by gel mobility shifts using glucocorticoid or estrogen response elements (GRE or ERE, respectively) as DNA probes. We find that all three residues are indeed required to fully switch GR's specificity to an ERE. The contacting valine in GR is of primary importance. The corresponding residue in ER, alanine, is less important for specificity, while glutamic acid, four amino acids towards the N-terminus, is most critical for ER discrimination. Finally, we show that the GR DNA binding domain carrying all three ER-specific mutations has a significantly higher affinity for an ERE than the ER DNA binding domain itself. We interpret these results in the context of both the data presented here and the crystal structure of the GR DNA binding domain complexed to a GRE.     

The ligand-dependent interaction of mineralocorticoid receptor with coactivator and corepressor peptides suggests multiple activation mechanisms

We investigated the coregulator (coactivator and corepressor) interactions with the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) that lead to activation and inhibition of the receptor in the presence of agonist and/or antagonist. Our results indicate that MR ligand binding domain (LBD) interacts strongly with only a few specific coactivator peptides in the presence of the agonist aldosterone and that these interactions are blocked by the antagonist eplerenone. We also discovered that cortisol, the preferred physiological ligand for the glucocorticoid receptor in humans, is a partial MR agonist/antagonist, providing a possible molecular explanation of the tissue-selective effects of glucocorticoids on MR. However, when we examined the coactivator and corepressor peptide interactions in the presence of cortisol, we found that MR bound with cortisol or aldosterone interacted with the same set of peptides. Thus, the partial agonism shown by cortisol is unlikely to be the result of differential interaction with known coactivators and corepressors. On the other hand, we have identified coactivator binding groove mutations that are critical for cortisol activation but not for aldosterone activation, suggesting that the two steroids induce different MR LBD conformations. In addition, we also show that cortisol becomes full agonist when S810L mutation is introduced in the LBD of MR. Interestingly, MR antagonists, such as eplerenone and progesterone, become partial agonist/antagonist of S810L but are still able to recruit LXXLL peptides to the mutant receptor. Together, these findings suggest a model to explain the MR activation by various ligands.     

DNA binding specificity of mutant glucocorticoid receptor DNA-binding domains

Mutation of a small number of amino acids in the DNA-binding domain of the estrogen receptor to the corresponding sequence of the glucocorticoid receptor switches the specificity of the receptor in transactivation assays (Mader, S., Kumar, V., de Verneuil, H., and Chambon, P. (1989) Nature 338, 271-274). We have made the corresponding reciprocal mutations in the context of the glucocorticoid receptor DNA-binding domain and studied the binding of wild type and mutant purified proteins to palindromic glucocorticoid and estrogen response elements as well as to elements of intermediate sequence, using gel mobility shift assays. We show here that a protein with two altered amino acids binds glucocorticoid and estrogen response elements with a low but equal affinity, whereas a protein with an additional changed residue has a high affinity for estrogen response elements but still retains a considerable affinity for glucocorticoid response elements. Using binding sites of intermediate sequence we have further characterized the interaction with DNA. The in vitro DNA binding results are confirmed by in vivo transactivation assays in yeast. Finally we suggest a testable model for amino acid/base pair interactions involved in recognition by the glucocorticoid receptor DNA-binding domain of its target sequence.     

Valine 571 functions as a regional organizer in programming the glucocorticoid receptor for differential binding of glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids.

The glucocorticoid receptor (GR) interacts specifically with glucocorticoids, whereas its closest relative, the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR), interacts with both glucocorticoids and mineralocorticoids, such as aldosterone. To investigate the mechanism underlying the glucocorticoid/mineralocorticoid specificity of the GR, we used a yeast model system to screen for GR ligand-binding domain mutants, substituted with MR residues in the segment 565-574, that can be efficiently activated by aldosterone. In all such increased activity mutants, valine 571 was replaced by methionine, even though most mutants also contained substitutions of other residues with their MR counterparts. Further analysis in yeast and COS-7 cells has revealed that the identity of residue 571 determines the behavior of other MR substituted residues in the 565-574 segment. Generally, MR substitutions in this region are only consistent with aldosterone binding if residue 571 is also replaced with methionine (MR conformation). If residue 571 is valine (GR conformation), most other MR substitution mutants drastically reduce interaction with both mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid hormones. Based on these functional data, we hypothesize that residue 571 functions as a regional organizer involved in discriminating between glucocorticoid and mineralocorticoid hormones. We have used a molecular model of the GR ligand-binding domain in an attempt to interpret our functional data in structural terms.     

Structural and biochemical mechanisms for the specificity of hormone binding and coactivator assembly by mineralocorticoid receptor

Mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) controls sodium homeostasis and blood pressure through hormone binding and coactivator recruitment. Here, we report a 1.95 A crystal structure of the MR ligand binding domain containing a single C808S mutation bound to corticosterone and the fourth LXXLL motif of steroid receptor coactivator-1 (SRC1-4). Through a combination of biochemical and structural analyses, we demonstrate that SRC1-4 is the most potent MR binding motif and mutations that disrupt the MR/SRC1-4 interactions abolish the ability of the full-length SRC1 to coactivate MR. The structure also reveals a compact steroid binding pocket with a unique topology that is primarily defined by key residues of helices 6 and 7. Mutations swapping a single residue at position 848 from helix H7 between MR and glucocorticoid receptor (GR) switch their hormone specificity. Together, these findings provide critical insights into the molecular basis of hormone binding and coactivator recognition by MR and related steroid receptors.     

Identification of ligand-selective peptide antagonists of the mineralocorticoid receptor using phage display

The mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) is a member of the nuclear receptor superfamily. Pathological activation of the MR causes cardiac fibrosis and heart failure, but clinical use of MR antagonists is limited by the renal side effect of hyperkalemia. The glucocorticoid cortisol binds the MR with equivalent affinity to that of the mineralocorticoids aldosterone and deoxycorticosterone. In nonepithelial tissues, including the myocardium, which do not express the cortisol-inactivating enzyme 11β hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase 2, cortisol has been implicated in the activation of MR. The mechanisms for ligand- and tissue-specific actions of the MR are undefined. Over the past decade, it has become clear that coregulator proteins are critical for nuclear receptor-mediated gene expression. A subset of these coregulators may confer specificity to MR-mediated responses. To evaluate whether different physiological ligands can induce distinct MR conformations that underlie differential coregulator recruitment and ligand-specific gene regulation, we utilized phage display technology to screen 10(8) 19mer peptides for their interaction with the MR in the presence of agonist ligands. We identified ligand-selective MR-interacting peptides that acted as potent antagonists of MR-mediated transactivation. This represents a novel mechanism of MR antagonism that may be manipulated in the rational design of a ligand- or tissue-selective MR modulator to treat diseases like heart failure without side effects such as hyperkalemia.     

Glucocorticoid metabolism by 11-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase type 2 modulates human mineralocorticoid receptor transactivation activity

The mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) binds aldosterone, but also glucocorticoid hormones (corticosterone in rodents, cortisol in humans), which largely prevail in the plasma. To prevent permanent and maximal occupancy of MR by glucocorticoid hormones in aldosterone-target cells, specific effects of aldosterone require metabolism of glucocorticoid hormones into 11-dehydroderivatives by 11-beta hydroxysteroid dehydrogenase (11-HSD2). We analyzed the effect of corticosterone or 11-dehydrocorticosterone (11-DHC) on the transactivation activity of the MR, transiently expressed in a new renal cell line expressing 11-HSD2. We show that, because of its metabolism by 11-HSD2, corticosterone is a poor activator of MR transactivation, except at micromolar concentrations, where the enzyme is saturated. We also show that high micromolar concentrations of 11 DHC are required to activate the MR. The weak antagonist property of 11-DHC on aldosterone-induced hMR transactivations is also documented. Such partial agonist activity of 11-DHC is discussed in the light of its positioning in a three-dimensional model of the MR ligand-binding domain.     

Functional probing of the human glucocorticoid receptor steroid-interacting surface by site-directed mutagenesis. Gln-642 plays an important role in steroid recognition and binding

To elucidate which amino acids in the glucocorticoid receptor ligand-binding domain might be involved in determining steroid binding specificity by interaction with the D-ring of glucocorticoids, we have performed site-directed mutagenesis of the four amino acids Met-560, Met-639, Gln-642, and Thr-739 based on their proximity to the steroid in a model structure. Mutations of these residues affected steroid binding affinity, specificity, and/or steroid-dependent transactivation. The results indicate that these residues are located in close proximity to the ligand and appear to play a role in steroid recognition and/or transactivating sensitivity, possibly by changes in the steroid-dependent conformational change of this region, resulting in the formation of the AF-2 site. Mutation of Gln-642 resulted in a marked decrease in affinity for steroids containing a 17alpha-OH group. This effect was alleviated by the presence of a 16alpha-CH(3) group to a varying degree. Thr-739 appears to form a hydrogen bond with the 21-OH group of the steroid, as well as possibly forming hydrophobic interactions with the steroid. Met-560 and Met-639 appear to form hydrophobic interactions with the D-ring of the steroid, although the nature of these interactions cannot be characterized in more detail at this point.     

Dissecting mineralocorticoid receptor structure and function

The molecular mechanisms by which aldosterone regulates epithelial sodium transport in the distal colon and the distal nephron remain to be fully elucidated. Aldosterone acts via the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) to induce the expression of genes whose products are involved in sodium transport. The structural basis of MR interactions with aldosterone has been examined by creating chimeras of the MR and the closely related glucocorticoid receptor; we have exploited differences in ligand-binding specificity to determine the region(s) of the MR that confer aldosterone-binding specificity. These findings have been related to a three-dimensional model of the MR based on the crystal structure of the progesterone receptor. These studies have been extended to include the characterisation of interactions between the N- and C-termini of the MR. We have characterised six genes that are regulated in vivo in the distal colon and/or kidney of the rat that are directly and acutely regulated by aldosterone administration: the three subunits of the epithelial sodium channel, serum and glucocorticoid-induced kinase, channel-inducing factor and K-ras2A. These studies provide insights into the molecular pathways that mediate aldosterone-induced amiloride-sensitive epithelial sodium transport.     

Mutations in squirrel monkey glucocorticoid receptor impair nuclear translocation

To identify the determinants of impaired glucocorticoid receptor (GR) signaling in a model of glucocorticoid resistance, cloned GR from Guyanese squirrel monkeys (gsmGR) was tagged with enhanced green fluorescent protein, and nuclear translocation was examined in transfected COS1 cells. In keeping with evidence that gsmGR transactivational competence is impaired, we found that nuclear translocation is likewise diminished in gsmGR relative to human GR (hGR). Experiments with GR chimeras revealed that replacement of the gsmGR ligand binding domain (LBD) with that from hGR increased translocation. Truncated gsmGR constructs lacking the LDB after amino acid 552 also showed increased translocation even in the absence of cortisol. Three back-mutations of gsmGR to hGR (Thr551Ser, Ala616Ser, and Ser618Ala) in the LBD confirmed that these amino acids play a role in diminished translocation.     

Corticosteroid hormones: mechanisms involved in the recognition of aldosterone by mineralocorticoid receptors

Aldosterone and cortisol, the major mineralocorticoid and glucocorticoid hormones in humans, are structurally very closed. Both hormones bind to the mineralocorticoid receptor (MR) with the same affinity. Nevertheless MR is preferentially activated by aldosterone, suggesting that the binding of these two hormones to MR involved some distinct contacts. We constructed a tridimensional model of the ligand-binding domain of the human MR, by taking as a template the structural data of the retinoid receptor associated with its ligand. The MR model allowed the identification of several residues involved in the interaction with aldosterone and cortisol. The residues Gln 776 and Arg 817 make hydrogen bonds with the 3-keto function and the residue Asn 770 with the C21-hydroxyl group. Analyses of the wild type and mutant MRs activities in response to corticosteroids bearing hydroxyl groups at various steroid skeleton position led to the following conclusions: 1) the interaction between the residue Asn 770 and the C21-hydroxyl group of corticosteroids is determinant for stabilizing the active MR conformation and 2) the stability of this conformation is enhanced by the 11-18 hemiketal group of aldosterone whereas it is decreased by the 11 beta- and 17 alpha-hydroxyl groups of cortisol. These results are discussed in the light of a model for the MR activation process.     

Expression and function of calcium binding domain chimeras of the integrins alpha(IIb) and alpha(5)

To further identify amino acid domains involved in the ligand binding specificity of alpha(IIb)beta(3), chimeras of the conserved calcium binding domains of alpha(IIb) and the alpha subunit of the fibronectin receptor alpha(5)beta(1) were constructed. Chimeras that replaced all four calcium binding domains, replaced all but the second calcium binding domain of alpha(IIb) with those of alpha(5), or deleted all four calcium binding domains were synthesized but not expressed on the cell surface. Additional chimeras exchanged subsets or all of the variant amino acids in the second calcium binding domain, a region implicated in ligand binding. Cell surface expression of each second calcium binding domain mutant complexed with beta(3) was observed. Each second calcium binding domain mutant was able to 1) bind to immobilized fibrinogen, 2) form fibrinogen-dependent aggregates after treatment with dithiothreitol, and 3) bind the activation-dependent antibody PAC1 after LIBS 6 treatment. Soluble fibrinogen binding studies suggested that there were only small changes in either the K(d) or B(max) of any mutant. We conclude that chimeras of alpha(IIb) containing the second calcium binding domain sequences of alpha(5) are capable of complexing with beta(3), that the complexes are expressed on the cell surface, and that mutant complexes are capable of binding both immobilized and soluble fibrinogen, suggesting that the second calcium binding domain does not determine ligand binding specificity.     

Steroid binding activity is retained in a 16-kDa fragment of the steroid binding domain of rat glucocorticoid receptors

The steroid binding domain of the rat glucocorticoid receptor is considered as extending from amino acids 550 to 795. However, such a synthetic protein (i.e. amino acids 547-795; Mr approximately 31,000) has been reported to show very little affinity for the potent synthetic glucocorticoid dexamethasone. We now disclose that digestion of steroid-free rat glucocorticoid receptors with low concentrations of trypsin yields a single species, of Mr = 16,000, that is specifically labeled by dexamethasone 21-mesylate. This 16-kDa fragment retains high affinity binding for [3H]dexamethasone that is only approximately 23-fold lower than that seen with the intact 98-kDa receptor. Analysis of the protease digestion patterns obtained both with trypsin and with lysylendopeptidase C allowed us to deduce the proteolytic cleavage maps of the receptor with these enzymes. From these protease maps, the sequence of the 16-kDa fragment was identified as being threonine 537 to arginine 673. These results show that glucocorticoid receptor fragments smaller than 34 kDa do bind steroids and that the amino acids Thr537-Arg673 constitute a core sequence for ligand binding within the larger steroid binding domain. The much slower kinetics in generating the 16-kDa fragment from affinity-labeled receptors suggests that steroid binding causes a conformation change in the receptor near the cleavage sites.     

Insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 binding specificity is determined by distinct regions of their cognate receptors.

Chimeric insulin/insulin-like growth factor-1 receptors and insulin receptor alpha-subunit point mutants were characterized with respect to their binding properties for insulin and insulin-like growth factor-1 (IGF-1) and their ability to translate ligand interaction into tyrosine kinase activation in intact cells. We found that replacement of the amino-terminal 137 amino acids of the insulin receptor (IR) with the corresponding 131 amino acids of the IGF-1 receptor (IGF-1R) resulted in loss of affinity for both ligands. Further replacement of the adjacent cysteine region with IGF-1R sequences fully reconstituted affinity for IGF-1, but only marginally for insulin. Unexpectedly, replacement of the IR cysteine-rich domain alone by IGF-1R sequences created a high affinity receptor for both insulin and IGF-1. The binding characteristics of all receptor chimeras reflected the potential of both ligands to regulate the receptor tyrosine kinase activity in intact cells. Our chimeric receptor data, in conjunction with IR amino-terminal domain point mutants, strongly suggest major contributions of structural determinants in both amino- and carboxyl-terminal IR alpha-subunit regions for the formation of the insulin-binding pocket, whereas, surprisingly, the residues defining IGF-1 binding are present predominantly in the cysteine-rich domain of the IGF-1R.