Anti-inflammatory,antioxidant, anti-cholinesterase activity and mutagenicity of South African medicinal orchids

While the role of various processes in inflammatory-related degenerative disorders is still being researched, many avenues of research have concentrated on the treatment and/or prevention of these disorders. Inflammatory-responses, the cholinergic system and oxidative stress have often been linked to the symptoms prevalent in aged persons and Alzheimer's patients. The current research explored the selective inhibition of cyclooxygenase (COX) enzymes, antioxidant and anti-cholinesterase activities of selected South African orchid extracts, currently traded in herbal markets along the east coast of South Africa. Out of a total of 53 evaluated extracts, significant anti-inflammatory activity was observed in nearly 40% of extracts in the COX-1 assay and 25% of extracts in the COX-2 assay. Overall, the DCM root extract of Ansellia africana was the most potent, the DCM tuber extract of Eulophia hereroensis was the only extract to significantly inhibit both COX enzymes, while all Bulbophyllum scaberulum organic root extracts exhibited COX-2 selective inhibitory activity. Bulbophyllum scaberulum DCM root extract was also the most effective anti-cholinesterase extract, performing better than galanthamine. In the single electron transfer (SET) (2,2′-diphenylpicrylhydrazyl (DPPH) free radical scavenging assay and ferric reducing antioxidant power (FRAP) reaction based assays, E. petersii pseudobulb and A. africana root extracts performed better than other extracts. In the hydrogen atom transfer (HAT) (β-carotene/linoleic acid assay) reaction-based assay, the leaf extract of Tridactyle tridentata and root extracts of Cyrtorchis arcuata and E. hereroensis exhibited the best antioxidant effects. The mutagenicity (Salmonella/microsome assay) was also determined. Organic leaf and root extracts of C. arcuata produced no genotoxic effects in comparison to the other tested species. None of the crude extracts tested demonstrated mutagenic effects using S. typhimurium strain TA98 with metabolic activation. The results obtained in this study validate the use of certain orchid species in South African traditional medicine for inflammation-related degenerative disorders.     

The orchids of Timor: checklist and conservation status

A checklist of the Orchidaceae of Timor is presented, with emphasis on the eastern half of the island (East Timor), based on historical herbarium collections and recent botanical explorations. This list comprises 38 genera with 66 species, including 15 new genera and 32 new species records for this island. Moreover, four new species are described: Bulbophyllum sundaicum , Habenaria ankylocentron , Habenaria cauda‐porcelli , and Pterostylis timorensis . Of these, we consider the finding of a new species of Pterostylis to be especially noteworthy, because this species seems to be more closely related to certain Australian members of the genus than to the Malesian ones, suggesting earlier contacts of Timor with Australia. Four new synonyms are proposed: Calanthe veratrifolia var. timorensis J.J.Sm. (C. triplicata), Habenaria cornuta Span. (H. giriensis), H. grandis Benth. ex Ridl. (Peristylus goodyeroides), and H. mutica Span. (H. elongata). The best represented genus is Habenaria, with 13 species, followed by Dendrobium with four, and Bulbophyllum with three. Because of insufficient or sterile material, it was not possible to identify, or describe as new, 20 different taxa. The conservation status of the ten endemic species, plus six possible new undescribed species and two non‐endemic, but threatened, species, was assessed using the World Conservation Union (IUCN) criteria, and categories of threat were proposed. Seven endemic species are considered to be Critically Endangered and two Endangered. One of the nonendemic species is considered to be Critically Endangered, and the other Endangered. The survival of some of these species might be less insecure if an effective application of Regulation project N.2000/19 on protected areas (UNTAET/REG/2000/19) was implemented and maintained, because most of these species were collected in areas considered for protection under this Regulation. Further studies are required, however, in order to complete our knowledge of the diversity and population dynamics of this interesting part of Timor's biodiversity. © 2008 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2008, 157 , 197–215.     

The evolution of beetle pollination in a South African orchid

The pollination biology of the orchid Ceratandra grandiflora was investigated in order to determine whether the partial loss of a specialized floral reward (i.e., oil) was the result of an incomplete shift from one specialized pollinator to another. In the three-species clade of section Ceratandra, there has been a progressive loss of the oil-secreting callus. lt is always present in C atrata, sometimes present in C. grandiflora, and never present in C. globosa. Thirty-nine to 67% of individuals in populations of C. grandiflora bear the callus gland, but gland presence has no signifikant effect on the proportion of flowers pollinated. Pollinator observations show that the shift in pollinators is complete and that the oil-secreting callus is a vestige of the ancestral oil-bee pollination system that no longer plays a role in pollination. C grandiflora is pollinated almost exclusively by a single species of hopliine beetle (Scarabaeidae). Experiments with artificial flower traps indicate that color alone can explain the attraction of beetles to C. grandiflora, despite the absence of a floral reward. The proportion of C. grandiflora flowers pollinated (50.2 and 61.1%; N = 524 and 324 flowers, respectively) is unusually high for a plant that relies on generalized food deception and is probably due to the use of inflorescences as mating sites (i.e., rendezvous pollination).     

Antioxidant and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory activity of selected southern African medicinal plants

Alzheimer's disease (AD) is the most common type of dementia in the aging population. Enhancement of acetylcholine levels in the brain is one means of treating the disease. However, the drugs presently used in the management of the disease have various drawbacks. New treatments are required and in this study, extracts of Salvia tiliifolia Vahl. (whole plant), Chamaecrista mimosoides L. Greene (roots), Buddleja salviifolia (L.) Lam. (whole plant) and Schotia brachypetala Sond. (root and bark) were evaluated to determine their polyphenolic content, antioxidant and acetylcholinesterase inhibitory (AChEI) activity. The DPPH and ABTS assays were used to determine antioxidant activity and Ellman colorimetric method to quantify AChEI activity. Although all four plants showed activity in both assays, the organic extracts of C. mimosoides root was found to contain the highest AChEI activity (IC₅₀ = 0.03 ± 0.08 mg/ml) and B. salviifolia whole plant had the highest antioxidant activity (ABTS; IC₅₀ = 0.14 ± 0.08 mg/ml and DPPH; IC₅₀ = 0.23 ± 0.01 mg/ml). The results suggest that the tested plant species may provide a substantial source of secondary metabolites, which act as natural antioxidants and acetylcholinesterase inhibitors, and may be beneficial in the treatment of AD.     

Floral and pollinator divergence in two sexually deceptive South African orchids

Two sister species in Disa section Disa were studied to evaluate the effect that minor differences in floral color, shape, and scent have on pollination. D. atricapilla and D. bivalvata have overlapping distributional ranges, occupy similar habitats, flower at the same time, and often occur sympatrically. Observations at several sites indicate that each species is pollinated almost exclusively by male wasps. D. atricapilla is pollinated by Podalonia canescens (Sphecidae), while D. bivalvata is pollinated mainly by Hemipepsis hilaris Smith (Pompilidae). Both wasp genera appear to exhibit mate-seeking behavior when approaching and visiting flowers. This together with the absence of a floral reward suggests that D. atricapilla and D. bivalvata are pollinated through sexual deception. Pollination success often appears low, but because of long floral life spans, overall fruiting success is generally high. The occasional presence of hybrids in areas of sympatry is attributed to secondary beetle pollinators. The rarity of these hybrids indicates that prefertilization barriers between the species are usually strong. This is the first report of pollination through sexual deception for southern Africa.     

High genetic variability in Neotropical myophilous orchids

The patterns of genetic variability of seven Bulbophyllum Thouars species were investigated using 14 enzymatic loci, and compared with those of other Neotropical myophilous orchid species. The genetic variability estimated was very high ( H _e = 0.39–0.61, P  = 86–100%, A  = 2.6–3.8), despite the small population sizes, which may be explained by the vegetative reproduction. Of the three species with multiple populations, only B. epiphytum showed moderate values of genetic structuring. Environmental characteristics and seed dispersal mechanisms are important in understanding the differences in the population structure observed. Almost all pairs of species showed low genetic similarity, indicating a long period of divergence. Our results suggest that B. adiamantinum and B. insectiferum , species currently classified in different sections of the genus, are more closely related than previously thought.  © 2007 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2007, 153 , 33–40.     

The flowering time of West African orchids*

Induction of flowering in orchids and controlling factors are briefly reviewed and results presented of observations on 121 epiphytic and 22 terrestrial West African orchid species under cultivation in Nigeria, together with field observations and published reports. It is concluded that about 66% of West African epiphytes flower during one fairly consistent period of the year, 21% during two or three periods and 13% over a long and variable period. At least 35% of the epiphytes and perhaps at least 27% of the terrestrials seem directly day-length controlled. Additional species appear indirectly influenced by day-length. Low temperature and temperature fluctuations induce flowering in other species. Moisture influences flowering only in shortening the time required for ontogenetic maturity. Epiphytes at high altitudes bloom earlier than plants in lowlands, and sometimes at different seasons. Possible genetically controlled blooming-time variations are mentioned.     

兰科植物欺骗性传粉

植物与传粉动物的互利关系在生态系统中非常普遍。然而,有许多植物不为传粉者提供任何报酬,而是利用各种欺骗方式诱骗昆虫拜访,从而实现传粉,即欺骗性传粉。兰科是被子植物大科之一,其高度特化的繁殖器官和适应于昆虫传粉的精巧结构令人称奇。进化论创始人达尔文描述了许多兰花与昆虫精巧的传粉系统,但他忽视了欺骗性传粉的存在。事实上,近1/3的兰科植物都依赖于欺骗性传粉。欺骗性传粉可能是导致兰科植物多样性的重要原因之一。兰花利用或操作昆虫觅食、交配、产卵和栖息等行为,演化出各种各样的欺骗性传粉机制,常见的类型包括泛化的食源性欺骗、Batesian拟态、性欺骗、产卵地拟态和栖息地拟态。花的颜色、形态和气味在欺骗性传粉的成功实现中起到了重要作用。欺骗性兰花与传粉昆虫之间的演化可能是不同步的,兰花追踪昆虫的行为信号而发生分化,然而欺骗性传粉可能对昆虫造成一定的伤害,从而对昆虫也施加选择压力。由于昆虫的学习行为,欺骗性的兰花一般具有低的昆虫拜访率和结实率,其繁殖成功率受各种因素的影响。欺骗性加剧了兰花对传粉昆虫的依赖,使其具有更高的灭绝风险,传粉生物学的研究能为兰科植物的有效保护提供指导。在欺骗性传粉系统中,有报酬的伴生植物、拟态模型和其他拟态信号提供者对传粉成功有重要影响。因此,研究欺骗性传粉兰花、传粉昆虫和相关的生物和生态因子的网状进化关系具有重要理论和实践意义。     

Ethnobotany of Ghalegay, District Swat, Pakistan

Ethnobotanical study of plants revealed that the local community of Ghalegy, District Swat, invariably uses 126 species of 59 families for various purposes. Based on their traditional local uses, fifty-seven species （45.2%） were classifted as medicinal, forty-seven as fire wood （37.3 % ）, forty-five as forage （35.7 % ）, twenty-eight as honey bee species （22.2%）, twenty-seven as vegetable species （21.4%）, 25 as edible fruits （14 wild and llcultivated）, thirteen as timberwood （10.3%）, twelve as ornamental （9.5%）, eleven as furniture wood, ten as shelter and thatch makers （7.9%）, ten as fencing （7.9%）, five as poisonous （4%）, four as religious/superstitious species, three species used in making hand sticks and wooden tools （2.4%）, three as utensil cleaner species （2.4%）, three as evil repellent and one as fish poisoning species. The area is in plant resources and traditional knowledge but it needs ecological management for its sustainability.     

The potential of South African plants in the development of new medicinal products

Southern Africa is an important focal point of botanical and cultural diversity but only a few plant species have hitherto become fully commercialised as medicinal products. In recent years there has been an upsurge in research and development activity, resulting in several new products and new crops. In this review, more than 90 of the best-known and most promising indigenous South African plants are listed and subjectively evaluated in the context of their potential for commercialisation as medicinal products for a variety of applications. The history of product development relating to the following species is briefly discussed and the plants and some of their products are illustrated: Agathosma betulina (buchu), Aloe ferox (bitter aloe), Artemisia afra (African wormwood), Aspalathus linearis (rooibos tea), Bulbine frutescens (burn jelly plant); Cyclopia genistoides (honeybush tea), Harpagophytum procumbens (devil's claw), Hoodia gordonii (hoodia, ghaap), Hypoxis hemerocallidea (“African potato”), Lippia javanica (fever tea), Mesembryanthemum tortuosum (= Sceletium tortuosum) (kanna, kougoed), Pelargonium sidoides (“Umckaloabo”), Siphonochilus aethiopicus (African ginger), Sutherlandia frutescens (= Lessertia frutescens) (cancer bush), Warburgia salutaris (pepperbark tree) and Xysmalobium undulatum (“Uzara”). The main factors that are apparently responsible for failure or success will be highlighted, especially the importance of marketing strategy, proof of concept and barriers to market entry.     

Preliminary checklist of the orchids of Chile

This article provides a preliminary checklist of the orchids occurring in Chile, based on historical and recently published literature. Data compilation was assisted by using databases available on the Web (IPNI, W³Tropicos and KR). The list comprises seven genera ( Aa , Bipinnula , Brachystele , Chloraea , Codonorchis , Gavilea and Habenaria ) and 50 taxa (49 species and one variety), 25 of which are believed to be endemic to Chile. It includes the publication of a new combination, Gavilea feuilleana comb. nov.   © 2003 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society , 2003, 143 , 449−451.     

Basic chromosome numbers of terrestrial orchids

The chromosome numbers of forty-one Brazilian species belonging to 11 genera of preferentially terrestrial orchids (subfamilies Cypripedioideae, Spiranthoideae, Orchidoideae, and Vanilloideae) were examined. Previous records for these subfamilies were reviewed in order to identify the ancestral chromosome numbers of terrestrial orchids. The variation observed within the subfamilies Spiranthoideae (2n=28, 36, 46, 48 and 92), and Orchidoideae (2n=42, 44, ca. 48, ca. 80, 84, and ca. 168) was similar to that previously reported in the literature. In the subfamily Spiranthoideae, some species of Prescottia (subtribe Prescottiinae) and some genera of Spiranthinae showed a bimodal karyotype with one distinctively large pair of chromosomes. The analysis of chromosome numbers of the genera in subfamilies revealed the predominance of the polyploid series 7, 14, 21, 28, 42 with a dysploid variation of ±1 in each ploidy level. These results suggest that the basic chromosome number of terrestrial orchids is x₁=7 for the subfamilies Spiranthoideae and Orchidoideae, as well as other Epidendroid orchids, and that the majority of the genera are composed of palaeopolyploids.     

Climate cooling promoted the expansion and radiation of a threatened group of South American orchids (Epidendroideae: Laeliinae)

The Brazilian Cerrado is the most species‐rich tropical savanna in the world. Within this biome, the Campos Rupestres (‘rocky savannas’) constitute a poorly studied and highly threatened ecosystem. To better understand how plants characteristic of this vegetation have evolved and come to occupy the now widely‐separated patches of rocky formations in eastern Brazil, we reconstruct the biogeographical history of the rare orchid genus Hoffmannseggella. We apply parsimony and Bayesian methods to infer the phylogenetic relationships among 40 out of the 41 described species. Absolute divergence times are calculated under penalized likelihood and compared with estimates from a Bayesian relaxed clock. Ancestral ranges are inferred for all nodes of the phylogeny using Fitch optimization and statistical dispersal vicariance analysis. In all analyses, phylogenetic uncertainty is taken into account by the independent analysis of a large tree sample. The results obtained indicate that Hoffmannseggella underwent rapid radiation around the Middle/Late Miocene (approximately 11–14 Mya). The region corresponding today to southern Minas Gerais acted as a main source area for several independent range expansions north‐ and eastwards via episodic corridors. These results provide independent evidence that climate cooling following the Middle Miocene Climatic Optimum (approximately 15 Mya) led to important vegetational shifts in eastern Brazil, causing an increase in the dominance of open versus closed habitats. Polyploidy following secondary contact of previously isolated populations may have been responsible for the formation of many species, as demonstrated by the high ploidy levels reported in the genus. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 100 , 597–607.     

Ethnobotany of Ghalegay,District Swat,Pakistan*

Ethnobotanical study of plants revealed that the local community of Ghalegy, District Swat, invariably uses 126 species of 59 families for various purposes. Based on their traditional local uses, fifty- seven species ( 4512%) were classified as medicinal, forty-seven as fire wood ( 3713%) , forty- five as forage ( 3517%) , twenty- eight as honey bee species ( 2212%) , twenty- seven as vegetable species ( 2114%) , 25 as edible fruits ( 14 wild and 11cultivated) , thirteen as timber wood ( 1013%) , twelve as ornamental ( 91 5%) , eleven as furniture wood, ten as shelter and thatch makers ( 719%) , ten as fencing ( 719%) , five as poisonous ( 4%) , four as religiousPsuperstitious species, three species used in making hand sticks and wooden tools ( 21 4%) , three as utensil cleaner species ( 214%) , three as evil repellent and one as fish poisoning species. The area is in plant resources and traditional knowledge but it needs ecological management for its sustainability.     

我国网络平台本土兰科植物贸易状况

我国兰科植物物种丰富, 很多具有极高的药用和观赏价值。随着网络平台的迅速发展, 兰科植物的线上交易越来越普遍。为了解国内网络平台的本土兰科植物贸易情况, 本文利用PyCharm Community软件爬取网络交易信息和人工浏览收集的方法, 分析了淘宝网、拼多多和中兰网的兰科植物贸易情况。调查发现: 网络贸易的本土兰科植物共计84属339种(含3变种), 包含45个中国特有种, 兰属(Cymbidium)和石斛属(Dendrobium)是最大的贸易对象。其中, 仅以观赏用途作为卖点的兰科植物309种(91.1%), 仅以药用价值作为卖点的兰科植物5种(1.5%), 以双用途作为卖点的兰科植物25种(7.4%)。本次调查共记录到336种(99.1%)野生兰科植物销售信息, 并发现部分销售者刻意包装野生兰科植物的现象。大部分淘宝网和拼多多的兰科植物最大销售量对应的价位为10-49元, 其中拼多多的价格更低且集中, 位于15-35元的占57.5%。商品货源地较集中, 主要包括云南省、广东省、广西壮族自治区、浙江省、福建省和四川省。进一步对本次记录的兰科植物进行濒危等级统计后发现: 受威胁兰科植物188种(55.5%), 其中极危(Critically Endangered, CR) 23种(6.8%), 濒危(Endangered, EN) 85种(25.1%), 易危(Vulnerable, VU) 80种(23.6%)。为加强我国野生兰科植物多样性保护, 强烈建议各网络平台依据最新《国家重点保护野生植物名录》制定兰科植物商品信息发布规则, 重点监督货源地集中的地区, 同时加强对公众的宣传教育, 相关部门应利用网络平台加强兰科资源的信息交流, 共同保护野生兰科植物。     

Turkish graveyards as refuges for orchids against tuber harvest

Harvest of orchid tubers for salep production is widespread in southwestern Asia and the Balkans and constitutes a major conservation risk for wild orchid populations. Synanthropic habitats, such as graveyards, are important refuges for orchids and other organisms and could offer protection from salep harvesting because of their special cultural role. However, little is known about the occurrence and factors influencing harvesting of salep in graveyards. During field surveys of 474 graveyards throughout Turkey, we observed 333 graveyards with orchids, 311 graveyards with tuberous orchids, and salep harvest in 14 graveyards. Altogether, 530 individuals of 17 orchid species were collected, representing 9% of the individuals recorded. Harvesting intensity was relatively low, and populations were usually not wholly destroyed. However, some species were clearly more affected than others. Salep harvesting risk of orchid species was significantly associated with flowering time, with early‐flowering species being more affected. A marginally significant positive relationship between harvesting risk and species‐specific tuber size was also detected. Our data suggest that graveyards might offer some protection against salep harvesting in Turkey, but they also show that some orchid taxa are much more affected than others. Overall, our observations add more weight to the conservation value of these special habitats.     

Differences in mycorrhizal preferences between two tropical orchids

Orchids parasitize their mycorrhizal fungi and are dependent on them for seed germination. Controversy reigns over how specific the mycorrhizal association is in tropical species. Although there is little experimental evidence to support any viewpoint, some variation is known to exist. We compared mycorrhizal specificity and performance in two phylogenetically related epiphytic orchids from Puerto Rico, Tolumnia variegata and Ionopsis utricularioides (Oncidiinae) by integrating two techniques: phylogenetic analysis of mycorrhizal fungi based on nuclear ribosomal internal transcribed spacer (ITS) sequences, and symbiotic seed germination experiments. Most of the mycorrhizal isolates from T. variegata fell into four different clades of Ceratobasidium, while most of those from I. utricularioides were restricted to a single clade of the same genus. Seeds of T. variegata germinated equally well with fungi from both T. variegata and I. utricularioides, but seeds of I. utricularioides germinated significantly better with its own isolates. Seeds of I. utricularioides germinated and developed faster than those of T. variegata. Both the molecular phylogeny and the seed germination experiments showed that T. variegata is a generalist in its association with fungal symbionts. In contrast, I. utricularioides is more specialized and more effective at exploiting a specific fungal clade. Our data are consistent with the theoretical trade-offs between specialized and generalized interactions.     

Coelonin,A 9,10-dihydrophenanthrene from the orchids Coelogyne ochracea and Coelogyne elata

2,7-Dihydroxy-4-methoxy-9,10-dihydrophenanthrene was isolated and identified from the whole plant of Coelogyne ochracea and C. elata.