Using occupancy models to investigate space partitioning between two sympatric large predators, the jaguar and puma in central Brazil

Coexistence of sympatric species is mediated by resource partitioning. Pumas occur sympatrically with jaguars throughout most of the jaguar's range but few studies have investigated space partitioning between both species. Here, camera trapping and occupancy models accounting for imperfect detection were employed in a Bayesian framework to investigate space partitioning between the jaguar and puma in Emas National Park (ENP), central Brazil. Jaguars were estimated to occupy 54.1% and pumas 39.3% of the sample sites. Jaguar occupancy was negatively correlated with distance to water and positively correlated with the amount of dense habitat surrounding the camera trap. Puma occupancy only showed a weak negative correlation with distance to water and with jaguar presence. Both species were less often present at the same site than expected under independent distributions. Jaguars had a significantly higher detection probability at cameras on roads than at off-road locations. For pumas, detection was similar on and off-road. Results indicate that both differences in habitat use and active avoidance shape space partitioning between jaguars and pumas in ENP. Considering its size, the jaguar is likely the competitively dominant of the two species. Owing to its habitat preferences, suitable jaguar habitat outside the park is probably sparse. Consequently, the jaguar population is likely largely confined to the park, while the puma population is known to extend into ENP's surroundings.     

Competitive interactions between felid species may limit the southern distribution of bobcats Lynx rufus

Bobcats are opportunistic felids occurring in a diverse range of habitats and with a widespread distribution from southern Canada to southern Mexico. To explore why the bobcat's distribution stops at the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, we modelled the ecological niches, projected as potential distributions, of the felid community (bobcat Lynx rufus, puma Puma concolor, jaguar Panthera onca, margay Leopardus wiedii, jaguarundi Herpailurus yagouaroundi, and ocelot Leopardus pardalis) in southern Mexico, using occurrence data, environmental maps, the computer algorithm GARP, and a GIS platform. The resulting geographical projection of the ecological niche of bobcats extends south of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec, suggesting that ecological conditions exist for the establishment of populations. The overlap of the modelled distribution of the bobcat was large with that of the puma (97%), but low with that of the ocelot (44%), margay (46%), jaguar (49%), and jaguarundi (52%), the latter three having relatively similar size and feeding habits to bobcats. Moreover, an independent analysis computing a geographic co‐occurrence index showed a similar trend of geographic avoidance (values 0.15), while all felids, except bobcats, showed a geographic co‐occurrence in southern Mexico (values ranging from ?1.91 to 4.71). The Isthmus of Tehuantepec, a lowland region with subtropical habitat, is unlikely to serve as a geographic and ecological barrier to bobcats. As mammal inventories have been conducted for over a century in this region with no records of bobcats, it is unlikely that bobcats are present but have just not been seen. Fossil records also provide no support for the presence of bobcats in that region in the past. Thus, competitive interactions with other felid species appear important in limiting the southern distribution of bobcats, preventing dispersal to a suitable but geographically reduced area south of the Isthmus of Tehuantepec.     

Dietary separation of sympatric carnivores identified by molecular analysis of scats

We studied the diets of four sympatric carnivores in the flooding savannas of western Venezuela by analysing predator DNA and prey remains in faeces. DNA was isolated and a portion of the cytochrome b gene of the mitochondrial genome amplified and sequenced from 20 of 34 scats. Species were diagnosed by comparing the resulting sequences to reference sequences generated from the blood of puma (Puma concolor), jaguar (Panthera onca), ocelot (Leopardus pardalus) and crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous). Scat size has previously been used to identify predators, but DNA data show that puma and jaguar scats overlap in size, as do those of puma, ocelot and fox. Prey-content analysis suggests minimal prey partitioning between pumas and jaguars. In field testing this technique for large carnivores, two potential limitations emerged: locating intact faecal samples and recovering DNA sequences from samples obtained in the wet season. Nonetheless, this study illustrates the tremendous potential of DNA faecal studies. The presence of domestic dog (Canis familiaris) in one puma scat and of wild pig (Sus scrofa), set as bait, in one jaguar sample exemplifies the forensic possibilities of this noninvasive analysis. In addition to defining the dietary habits of similar size sympatric mammals, DNA identifications from faeces allow wildlife managers to detect the presence of endangered taxa and manage prey for their conservation.     

Factors influencing ocelot occupancy in Brazilian Atlantic Forest reserves

Over 80% of Atlantic Forest remnants are <50 ha and protected areas are embedded in a matrix dominated by human activities, undermining the long‐term persistence of carnivores. The ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) is an opportunistic species, but little is known about its tolerance to habitat alterations and the influence of other species on its occupancy in Atlantic Forest remnants. We used camera traps to assess ocelot occupancy in protected areas of Atlantic Forest in southeastern Brazil. We found a positive correlation between the occupancy of ocelots and top predators (jaguars, Panthera onca, and pumas, Puma concolor), and a weaker negative effect between the number of domestic dogs (Canis familiaris) detected and ocelot occupancy. Ocelot detection was higher at sites with more eucalyptus, suggesting that ocelots frequently use these areas. Better‐protected areas surrounded by permeable matrices may be critical to the persistence of ocelots in the fragmented Atlantic Forest.     

DNA extraction from hair shafts of wild Brazilian felids and canids

Wild felids and canids are usually the main predators in the food chains where they dwell and are almost invisible to behavior and ecology researchers. Due to their grooming behavior, they tend to swallow shed hair, which shows up in the feces. DNA found in hair shafts can be used in molecular studies that can unravel, for instance, genetic variability, reproductive mode and family structure, and in some species, it is even possible to estimate migration and dispersion rates in given populations. First, however, DNA must be extracted from hair. We extracted successfully and dependably hair shaft DNA from eight wild Brazilian felids, ocelot, margay, oncilla, Geoffroy's cat, pampas cat, jaguarundi, puma, and jaguar, as well as the domestic cat and from three wild Brazilian canids, maned wolf, crab-eating fox, and hoary fox, as well as the domestic dog. Hair samples came mostly from feces collected at the S?o Paulo Zoo and were also gathered from non-sedated pet or from recently dead wild animals and were also collected from museum specimens. Fractions of hair samples were stained before DNA extraction, while most samples were not. Our extraction protocol is based on a feather DNA extraction technique, based in the phenol:chloroform:isoamyl alcohol general method, with proteinase K as digestive enzyme.     

Density and habitat use of one of the last jaguar populations of the Brazilian Atlantic Forest: Is there still hope?

The jaguar (Panthera onca) plays an important role in maintaining biodiversity and ecological processes. We evaluated the status of a jaguar population in one of the last stronghold habitats for its conservation in the Atlantic Forest, the Rio Doce State Park (RDSP). We used a random survey design from 2016/17 to estimate jaguar abundance and density as well as its occupancy and detection probabilities in the entire Park''s area. To monitor for temporal fluctuations in density and abundance, we used a systematic survey design in the southern portion of the Park where jaguars were more recorded when using the random approach. We then conducted two surveys in 2017/18 and 2020. Our 2016/17 random survey revealed that jaguar density (0.11 ± SE 0.28 individuals/100 km²) was the lowest obtained for the species across the Atlantic Forest. We noticed that jaguar density increased three times from 2017/18 (0.55 ± SE 0.45 individuals/100 km²) to 2020 (1.61 ± SE 0.6 individuals/100 km²). Jaguar occupancy and detection probability were 0.40 and 0.08, respectively. The low jaguar occupancy probability was positively associated with smaller distances from lakes and records of potential prey. The detection probability was positively associated with prey detection, the rainy season, and smaller distances from lakes. Our work contributes to a growing awareness of the potential conservation value of a protected area in a human‐dominated landscape as one of the last strongholds for jaguars across the Atlantic Forest.     

Identification of Priority Conservation Areas and Potential Corridors for Jaguars in the Caatinga Biome,Brazil

The jaguar, Panthera onca, is a top predator with the extant population found within the Brazilian Caatinga biome now known to be on the brink of extinction. Designing new conservation units and potential corridors are therefore crucial for the long-term survival of the species within the Caatinga biome. Thus, our aims were: 1) to recognize suitable areas for jaguar occurrence, 2) to delineate areas for jaguar conservation (PJCUs), 3) to design corridors among priority areas, and 4) to prioritize PJCUs. A total of 62 points records of jaguar occurrence and 10 potential predictors were analyzed in a GIS environment. A predictive distributional map was obtained using Species Distribution Modeling (SDM) as performed by the Maximum Entropy (Maxent) algorithm. Areas equal to or higher than the median suitability value of 0.595 were selected as of high suitability for jaguar occurrence and named as Priority Jaguar Conservation Units (PJCU). Ten PJCUs with sizes varying from 23.6 km² to 4,311.0 km² were identified. Afterwards, we combined the response curve, as generated by SDM, and expert opinions to create a permeability matrix and to identify least cost corridors and buffer zones between each PJCU pair. Connectivity corridors and buffer zone for jaguar movement included an area of 8.884,26 km² and the total corridor length is about 160.94 km. Prioritizing criteria indicated the PJCU representing c.a. 68.61% of the total PJCU area (PJCU # 1) as of high priority for conservation and connectivity with others PJCUs (PJCUs # 4, 5 and 7) desirable for the long term survival of the species. In conclusion, by using the jaguar as a focal species and combining SDM and expert opinion we were able to create a valid framework for practical conservation actions at the Caatinga biome. The same approach could be used for the conservation of other carnivores.     

Occupancy and detectability of Snowy Plovers in western Utah: an application to a low density population

Occupancy modeling can be used to identify habitat characteristics associated with species occurrence. Additionally, occupancy sampling can provide measures of detection probability, increasing confidence in monitoring efforts. Little is known about the distribution and habitat preferences of a small population of Snowy Plovers (Charadrius nivosus) in western Utah. We conducted a study to estimate occupancy and detection probability of Snowy Plovers in western Utah during 2011 and 2012. We made repeated visits to randomly selected survey plots during the breeding period, sampling 84 64‐ha plots in 2011 and 100 64‐ha plots in 2012 and recording the number of adults and habitat characteristics in each plot. We then modeled the relationship between detection, occupancy, and covariates that included distance to water, distance to roads, land cover types, and characteristics of the vegetation. We also included covariates for observer, Julian date, temperature, cloud cover, and wind speed when modeling detection probability. Detection probability was high (0.74, 95% CI = 0.57–0.86) and positively influenced by temperature. Occupancy of 64‐ha plots was low (0.27, 95% CI = 0.18–0.39) and did not vary by year. Occupancy of Snowy Plovers was negatively associated with distance to water (β = ?0.62 ± 0.31, 95% CI = ?1.23 to ?0.01) and percent shrub cover (β = ?0.28 ± 0.02, 95% CI = ?0.58 to ?0.01). Land cover types also influenced plot occupancy. Management actions that conserve shallow water and adjacent habitats or minimize disturbance in these areas are likely to have conservation benefits for Snowy Plovers where water is scarce. Because our detection probabilities were high, investigators involved in future monitoring efforts can achieve reasonable precision with limited revisits to sample plots.     

Habitat use of the ocelot (Leopardus pardalis) in Brazilian Amazon

Amazonia forest plays a major role in providing ecosystem services for human and sanctuaries for wildlife. However, ongoing deforestation and habitat fragmentation in the Brazilian Amazon has threatened both. The ocelot is an ecologically important mesopredator and a potential conservation ambassador species, yet there are no previous studies on its habitat preference and spatial patterns in this biome. From 2010 to 2017, twelve sites were surveyed, totaling 899 camera trap stations, the largest known dataset for this species. Using occupancy modeling incorporating spatial autocorrelation, we assessed habitat use for ocelot populations across the Brazilian Amazon. Our results revealed a positive sigmoidal correlation between remote‐sensing derived metrics of forest cover, disjunct core area density, elevation, distance to roads, distance to settlements and habitat use, and that habitat use by ocelots was negatively associated with slope and distance to river/lake. These findings shed light on the regional scale habitat use of ocelots and indicate important species–habitat relationships, thus providing valuable information for conservation management and land‐use planning.     

Identification of neotropical felid faeces using RCP-PCR

Faeces similarity among sympatric felid species has generally hampered their use in distributional, demographic and dietary studies. Here, we present a new and simple approach based on a set of species-specific primers, for the unambiguous identification of faeces from sympatric neotropical felids (i.e. puma, jaguar, jaguarundi and ocelot/ margay). This method, referred to as rapid classificatory protocol-PCR (RCP-PCR), consists of a single-tube multiplex PCR yielding species-specific banding patterns on agarose gel. The method was optimized with samples of known origin (14 blood and 15 fresh faeces) and validated in faecal samples of unknown origin (n = 138), for some of which (n = 40) we also obtained species identification based on mtDNA sequencing. This approach proved reliable and provides high identification success rates from faeces. Its simplicity and cost effectiveness should facilitate its application for routine surveys of presence and abundance of these species.     

Factors influencing the habitat use by ocelots in one of the last large Atlantic Forest remnants in southeastern Brazil

Ocelots (Leopardus pardalis) are widely distributed throughout the Americas, being dependent on forested areas to survive. Although ocelot ecology is broadly studied throughout the species range distribution, studies concerning factors that may affect ocelot occupancy in the Atlantic Forest are still scarce. We used camera traps to evaluate factors influencing the probabilities of detection and occupancy of ocelots in a protected area of the Atlantic Forest, the Rio Doce State Park (RDSP), southeastern Brazil. To assess ocelot occupancy and detection probabilities, we measured the distances between sampling stations and rivers, lakes, cities, pasture, and Eucalyptus plantations. In addition, we recorded the mean rainfall levels for each sampling occasion, and native grassland areas within a 500 m‐buffer around each sampling station. We found a strong and positive association between ocelot detection and the dry season, which might be due to a higher number of individuals moving through the Park during this season. Moreover, we found a strong and positive association of ocelot detection with native grassland areas around lakes, which may be related to the ocelot behavior of searching for prey in these areas. Conversely, the ocelot occupancy probability was intermediate (Ψ^ = 0.53, 95% CI = 0.36–0.69) and was not strongly associated with the evaluated covariates, which may be explained by the high‐quality of forest habitats and water resources that are homogeneously distributed within the Park. Our study indicates that the RDSP still provides a structurally suitable forest habitat for ocelots, but because of the current worrying scenario of over fragmentation, reduction of forest cover, and weakness of the protective legislation of this biome, the long‐term persistence of the species in RDSP is uncertain.     

The impact of a fox‐ and cat‐free safe haven on the bird fauna of remnant vegetation in southwestern Australia

Introduced predators are a serious threat to Australian vertebrates. However, the consequences of predation for an area's avifauna have rarely been quantified. We took advantage of the establishment of a 7,832 ha fox‐ and cat‐free safe haven at Mt Gibson, in Western Australia, to assess the consequences of excluding introduced mammal predators on the bird fauna. Bird surveys were conducted over 6 years, before and after the establishment of the introduced predator‐free safe haven. After 3 years, half the sites were enclosed by the fence that excluded introduced predators, while the remainder of sites remained outside the fence and were exposed to fox and cat activity. The sites were stratified by four major vegetation types. A total of 91 bird species were variously detectable with the survey approach, but were typically more detectable during morning surveys. Site occupancy varied considerably among species, but overall, occupancy by all species was most likely to be either not impacted or positively impacted by the safe haven. The most notable change was that avifaunal richness appeared to increase in woodland and shrubland habitats within, as compared to outside, the safe haven. We conclude that: (1) the safe haven had an overall positive impact on bird occupancy; and (2) there were no consistent trends with respect to the kinds of species whose occupancy was positively impacted, beyond them all being small‐ to medium‐sized birds and mostly insectivorous. However, these conclusions must be tempered by the poor detection probability of many species.     

Estimating occupancy of the Vulnerable northern tiger cat <Emphasis Type="Italic">Leopardus tigrinus</Emphasis> in Caatinga drylands

Understanding the distribution and habitat preference of threatened species is essential for their conservation. We conducted the first systematic camera trap survey of the Vulnerable northern tiger cat Leopardus tigrinus in Caatinga drylands (Brazil) and tested how its occupancy and detectability patterns are affected by environmental and anthropogenic factors. Species detection-non-detection data, obtained by 7263 camera-days distributed throughout 187 sampling sites on ten Caatinga landscapes, were used to evaluate species detectability and occupancy according to ten environmental and anthropogenic predictors. We built seven detection models and 30 hierarchical occupancy models that have been ranked based on the Akaike Information Criterion. The estimated average occupancy of 0.46 was 38% higher than the naïve occupancy rate (0.34). Species occupancy was higher in locations with greater forest cover and at greater distance to agrarian settlements. Hunting and persecution of northern tiger cats by residents and a possible reduction of their natural prey by hunting may explain the result. On the contrary, more forested environments may represent higher-quality habitats providing greater availability of prey and shelters and protection against anthropogenic threats and extreme temperatures. These results improve the understanding of the ecology of a threatened and poorly known small cat, and they can guide conservation actions such as the creation of dense forest protected areas and provide information for mitigating human-carnivore conflict.     

Effects of multiple disturbance processes on arboreal vertebrates in eastern Australia: implications for management

Habitat loss and invasive predators increasingly threaten global biodiversity. Here we use a landscape‐scale experimental approach to explore the individual and synergistic effects of logging and an invasive predator, the red fox Vulpes vulpes on two common native arboreal vertebrates (a predator and prey species) in south‐eastern Australia. We used site occupancy methods to evaluate different models evaluating the effects of site specific forest logging disturbance, lethal fox baiting and forest structural elements for explaining variation in site occupancy of a large monitor lizard Varanus varius, and a marsupial prey, the common ringtail possum Pseudocheirus peregrinus across a complex forest landscape. Site occupancy of ringtail possum was influenced by habitat resources and the structural complexity of forest, which indirectly mediated predation risk. Presence of fox baiting had no direct effect on the ringtail site occupancy. In contrast, access to prey resources and fox baiting appeared to best explain site occupancy variation in monitor lizards across the landscape. While these species are affected primarily by separate disturbances, synergistic interactions between the processes may intensify their effects. Our results demonstrate that species susceptibility to disturbance processes are highly idiosyncratic. This approach makes efficient use of integrated modelling to aid conservation management at both local and landscape levels.     

Exposure of Free-Ranging Wild Carnivores and Domestic Dogs to Canine Distemper Virus and Parvovirus in the Cerrado of Central Brazil

Human population growth around protected areas increases the contact between wild and domestic animals, promoting disease transmission between them. This study investigates the exposure of free-ranging wild carnivores and domestic dogs to canine distemper virus (CDV) and parvovirus in Emas National Park (ENP) in the Cerrado savanna of central Brazil. Serum samples were collected from 169 wild carnivores, including the maned wolf (Chrysocyon brachyurus), crab-eating fox (Cerdocyon thous), hoary fox (Pseudalopex vetulus), puma (Puma concolor), ocelot (Leopardus pardalis), pampas cat (Leopardus colocolo), jaguarundi (Herpailurus yagouaroundi), striped hog-nosed skunk (Conepatus semistriatus) and coati (Nasua nasua), and from 35 domestic dogs living on rural properties bordering ENP. Serological tests showed that 10.6% of wild carnivores (maned wolves, crab-eating foxes and ocelots) and 71.4% of domestic dogs were exposed to CDV, and 56.8% of wild carnivores, including all species sampled except coatis, and 57.1% of domestic dogs were exposed to parvovirus. This report is the first to indicate that the free-ranging pampas cat, jaguarundi and striped hog-nosed skunk are exposed to parvovirus. CDV and parvovirus deserve attention in ENP, and it is extremely important to monitor the health of carnivore populations and perform molecular diagnosis of the viruses to determine the possible involvement of the domestic dog in their transmission.     

Are Private Reserves Effective for Jaguar Conservation?

We present the first study of density and apparent survival for a jaguar (Panthera onca) population in northern Mexico using 13 years of camera trap data from 2000 to 2012. We used the Barker robust design model which combines data from closed sampling periods and resight data between these periods to estimate apparent survival and abundance. We identified 467 jaguar pictures that corresponded to 48 jaguar individuals. We included camera type and field technician as covariates for detection probabilities. We used three covariates to evaluate the effect of reserve on jaguar apparent survival: i) private reserve creation ii) later reserve expansions, and iii) cattle ranches’ conservation activities. We found that the use of digital cameras in addition to film cameras increased detection probability by a factor of 6x compared with the use of only film cameras (p = 0.34 ± 0.05 and p = 0.05 ± 0.02 respectively) in the closed period and more than three times in the open period (R = 0.91 ± 0.08 and R = 0.30 ± 0.13 mixed and film cameras respectively). Our availability estimates showed no temporary emigration and a fidelity probability of 1. Despite an increase of apparent survival probability from 0.47 ± 0.15 to 0.56 ± 0.11 after 2007, no single covariate explained the change in these point estimates. Mean jaguar density was 1.87 ± 0.47 jaguars/100 km². We found that 13 years of jaguar population monitoring with our sampling size were not enough for detecting changes in survival or density. Our results provide a baseline for studies evaluating the effectiveness of protected areas and the inclusion of ranch owners in jaguar conservation programs and long-term population viability.     

Agricultural encroachment and lack of enforcement threaten connectivity of range-wide jaguar (Panthera onca) corridor

The purpose of protected areas is to safeguard natural habitats and their biodiversity. However, few protected areas are large enough for the long-term conservation of resident species, making the landscapes surrounding protected areas equally important for species conservation. This is especially true for wide-ranging carnivores such as the jaguar (Panthera onca), for which conservation strategies stress the maintenance of range-wide habitat connectivity via protected areas and dispersal corridors. We used 587 interviews with local people in 441 36-km² sampling units to assess the presence of jaguar and six prey species in a critical corridor in Central America, linking Bosawas Biosphere Reserve and Wawashan Nature Reserve in Nicaragua. We analyzed these data using single-season false-positive detection models in a site occupancy framework. We found that agricultural encroachment, particularly pervasive within a protected area, was the main factor limiting the presence of jaguar and three large-bodied prey species: white-lipped peccary (Tayassu pecari), collared peccary (Pecari tajacu), and red brocket deer (Mazama americana). We suggest that improperly-managed protected areas can suffer the loss of apex predators and their prey, thereby jeopardizing range-wide conservation strategies for threatened species.     

Using environmental DNA and occupancy modelling to identify drivers of eastern hellbender (Cryptobranchus alleganiensis alleganiensis) extirpation

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Land use drivers of species re‐expansion: inferring colonization dynamics in Eurasian otters

Aim Land use intensity has been recognized as one of the major determinants of native species declines. The re‐expansion of species previously constrained by habitat degradation has been rarely investigated. Here, we use site occupancy models incorporating imperfect detection to identify the land use drivers of the re‐expansion of the Eurasian otter (Lutra lutra). Location Czech Republic. Methods We applied multi‐season occupancy models to otter presence–non‐detection data collected in three national surveys (1992, 2000, 2006) at 552 sites (11.2 × 12 km grid cells). Model parameters included site occupancy, colonization and extinction probabilities, and detection probability at a sub‐site level. We modelled changes in occupancy over time as a function of agricultural, urban and industrial land use and change in the extent of agricultural land use. Results Under the best fitting model, occupancy was estimated to be 34.6% in 1992, 51.3% in 2000 and 83.7% in 2006. Detection probability was neither perfect nor constant. Occupancy probability in 1992 was negatively related to land use gradients. Colonization was more likely to occur where a reduction in agricultural land was larger. Variation in extinction and colonization rates along land use gradients resulted in increased occupancy in industrial and especially urban landscapes. Conversely, occupancy remained almost unchanged along agricultural gradients. Main conclusions Dynamics of otter expansion were strongly associated with the two main patterns of the rapid environmental transition that has taken place in the Czech Republic since the early 1990s. Results show that a reduction in intensive agricultural land use led to an increase in otter distribution, providing evidence of the impact of agricultural land use on stream ecosystems. Moreover, otters recolonized urban and industrial landscapes, probably as a result of extensive reduction in water pollution from point sources. Our results suggest that active conservation of otter populations should focus on restoration of freshwater habitat at large scales, especially in agricultural landscapes.     

Using probability of occurrence to assess potential interaction between wind farms and a residual population of golden eagle Aquila chrysaetos in NW Spain

We evaluate the areas with potential negative impacts in a golden eagle population derived of the development of wind farms. At present, the entire golden eagle Galician population (5–6 pairs) is located within an area of about 2,000 km². Grid squares of 10 × 10 km UTM in the province were scored for current and future wind turbine density and probability of occurrence of golden eagle. This probability was obtained using cartographic models of habitat selection for two different historic periods. Potential risk index (PRI) was calculated for each grid square by multiplying the wind turbine density score by the probability of occurrence score. With the PRIs obtained a cartographic model of potential impact of wind farms on the golden eagle population was constructed. No significant correlation was observed between current wind turbine density and the probability of occurrence of golden eagle. A significant positive correlation was observed between current and future wind turbine density and the probability of occurrence of golden eagle. The areas with highest potential risk are eastern and the central mountains of Ourense where the species breeds. The risk model presented could be applied to future wind farm proposals and monitor potential interactions of golden eagles with wind farms in the Province of Ourense.