Repellent and toxic properties of plant oils and extracts on Cydalima perspectalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Buxus plants in Europe become frequently infested by the Box tree moth, Cydalima perspectalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) but applicable biological control methods are limited. To make a first step in preventing egg deposition on Buxus plants, seven essential oils (Carum carvi, Juniperus communis, Lavendula angustifolia, Melaleuca alternifolia, Pinus sylvestris, Rosmarinus officinalis and Thymus vulgaris), one seed oil (Sambucus nigra) and six plant extracts (Equisetum arvense, Juniperus communis, Quassia amara, Salvia officinalis, Tanacetum vulgare and Thymus vulgaris) were investigated on their potential to influence oviposition preference in the greenhouse. The four essential oils exhibiting the highest repellency values (RV = 0.61–0.94) were further assessed in laboratory leaf disc bioassays on larvae. Despite the strong repellent effect of S. nigra on female oviposition, no impact could be detected on the larvae. These were significantly susceptible to exposed leaf discs treated with T. vulgaris and M. alternifolia essential oils including feeding deterrence, survival and larval weight. T. vulgaris was the most effective oil considering both effects. The effective lethal concentration (LC₅₀) of T. vulgaris was calculated to be 1% at 72 h. Our results suggest the possibility of using essential oils to protect Buxus plants in order to reduce the overall risk for defoliation by larval feeding.     

Biochemical characterization of a hemolymph phenoloxidase and its endogenous inhibitor in the larvae of an invasive moth,Cydalima perspectalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

Phenoloxidase system is a crucial component of insect innate immunity which contribute to oxidize phenols to quinones and to generate reactive oxygen and nitrogen intermediates. In the current study, a phenoloxidase (PO) was extracted by hemocyte lysate preparation and purified through ammonium sulfate precipitation, Sepharyl G-100, and DEAE-Cellulose fast flow columns. At the end of the purification process, an enzyme was purified with a specific activity of 0.462 U/mg protein, recovery of 40.47%, purification fold of 14.43 and molecular weight of ~78.7 kDa. The optimal activity was recorded at pH 7 while the optimal temperature was recorded at 30–35 °C, 35 °C and 25–35 °C, using L-dihydroxyphenylalanine, hydroquinone, and pyrocatechol, respectively. The highest V_max of PO was obtained using L-dopa while the lowest K_m value was gained using hydroquinone. Among used synthetic inhibitors of ethylenediaminetetraacetic acid (EDTA), diethyldithiocarbamate (DTC), N, N,N0,N0-tetraacetic acid (EGTA) and triethylenetetramine hexaacetic acid (TTHA), EDTA and DTC inhibited more than 60% of the enzyme activity. Moreover, an endogenous phenoloxidase inhibitor (POI) was purified by twice processing of Sepharyl G-100 chromatography with the molecular weight of ~52 kDa. The IC₅₀ of POI was found 31.3 mg against the purified PO of C. perspectalis and led to a higher value of K_m. Finally, larval injection by DTC and POI demonstrated significant inhibition of PO over the time of exposure. A comprehensive understanding of insect’s POs may better clarify the ways of their survival within infected areas and to potentially target them by specific and selective compounds.     

Development characteristics of the box‐tree moth Cydalima perspectalis and its potential distribution in Europe

The box‐tree moth Cydalima perspectalis (Walker) is an invasive pest causing severe damage to box trees (Buxus spp.). It is native to Japan, Korea and China, but established populations have been recorded in a number of locations across Europe since 2007 and the spread of the insect continues. The developmental investigations suggest that larvae overwinter mainly in their 3rd instar in Europe and that diapause is induced by a day length of about 13.5 h. One and a half to 2 months in the cold are necessary to terminate diapause. Threshold temperatures for development and number of degree‐days to complete a generation are slightly different from those calculated in previous studies in Japan. A bioclimatic (CLIMEX^®) model for C. perspectalis in Europe was developed, based on climate, ecological and developmental parameters from the literature and new field and laboratory studies on diapause termination, thermal requirements and phenology. The model was then validated with actual distribution records and phenology data. The current distribution and life history of C. perspectalis in Europe were consistent with the predicted distribution. The climate model suggests that C. perspectalis is likely to continue its spread across Europe, except for Northern Fenno‐Scandinavia, Northern Scotland and high mountain regions. The northern distribution of C. perspectalis is expected to be limited by a number of degree‐days above the temperature threshold insufficient to complete a generation, whereas its southern range is limited by the absence of a cold period necessary to resume diapause. The model predicts relatively high Ecoclimatic Indices throughout most of Europe, suggesting that the insect has the potential of becoming a pest in most of its predicted range. However, damage is likely to be higher in Southern and Central Europe where the moth is able to complete at least two generations per year.     

Biology and natural enemies of Cydalima perspectalis in Asia: Is there biological control potential in Europe?

The box tree moth, Cydalima perspectalis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae), a native pest of box trees (Buxus spp.) in Asia, was first detected in Germany and the Netherlands in 2007 and has since rapidly spread throughout Europe causing severe damage to ornamental and native box trees. To date, sustainable control strategies for C. perspectalis in Europe are lacking, primarily owing to the inadequate information regarding the biology and the ecology of this recent invader. Several studies conducted in Asia, however, may provide important information for the development of management strategies against C. perspectalis, which are urgently needed to preserve the natural box tree forests in Europe. The current literatures on the biological characteristics, host plants, phenology, distribution and control options of the box tree moth in Asia are reviewed, preliminary data on the parasitism of C. perspectalis in Europe are provided, and options for sustainable long‐term solutions for the management of the invasive pest in Europe are discussed.     

Predicting the potential distribution and forest impact of the invasive species Cydalima perspectalis in Europe

Invasive species have considerably increased in recent decades due to direct and indirect effects of ever‐increasing international trade rates and new climate conditions derived from global change. We need to better understand how the dynamics of early species invasions develop and how these result in impacts on the invaded ecosystems. Here we studied the distribution and severe defoliation processes of the box tree moth (Cydalima perspectalis W.), a tree defoliator insect native to Asia and invasive in Europe since 2007, through the combination of species distribution models based on climate and landscape composition information. The results showed that the combination of data from the native and the invaded areas was the most effective methodology for the appropriate invasive species modeling. The species was not influenced by overall landscape factors, but only by the presence of its host plant, dispersal capacity, and climate suitability. Such climate suitability was described by low precipitation seasonality and minimum annual temperatures around 0°C, defining a continentality effect throughout the territory. We emphasize the need of studying distribution and severe defoliation processes separately because we identified that climate suitability was slightly involved in limiting species spread processes but strongly constrained ecosystem impact in terms of defoliation before the species reaches equilibrium with the new environment. New studies on habitat recovery after disturbance, ecological consequences of such impact, and community dynamics in a context of climate change are required for a better understanding of this invasive species.     

Diapause in the life cycle of Calanoides carinatus (Kroyer), (Copepoda, Calanoida)

The distribution and stage composition of Calanoidescarinatus (Kroyer) are described together with changes in protein and lipid content, respiration rate and gonad development in copepodite stages IV and V (CV) and adults in the Northern Benguela current (17°S, 23°S and 25°S).During active upwelling the population consisted of two parts: the surface part over the shelf was represented by all development stages, while the deep part offshore was dominated (90–95%) by diapausal CVs. In the surface CVs the surplus assimilated energy was allocated to structural growth and maturation or to synthesis of reserve lipids. CVs with large oil sacs and high lipid content descended into deeper layers and formed diapausal stock; they were characterized by a dramatic decrease of respiration rate. Increase of gonad size in association with decrease of oil sac volume in diapausal CV suggests that reserve lipids were expended not only for respiration but also for gonad development. The moulting of dispausal CVs into adults took place in deep water.These results are discussed in relation to the life cycle of the C. carinatus population and the factors causing the formation and termination of the diapausal phase.     

Oviposition preference and larval development of the invasive moth Cydalima perspectalis on five European box‐tree varieties

The box‐tree pyralid Cydalima perspectalis (Walker 1859) (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae), native to Eastern Asia, is a newly introduced species causing severe damage to box‐trees (Buxus sp.) in private and public gardens as well as in semi‐natural box‐tree forests in Central Europe. It is so far not known whether different box‐tree subspecies (or varieties) are similarly affected by this invasive moth. In a choice experiment offering branches of five different box‐tree varieties as oviposition sites, we found a preference of female moths for laying their egg clusters on the variety ‘Rotundifolia’, while other varieties were less frequently considered. The preference for ‘Rotundifolia’, the variety with the largest leaves in the tests, remained when intervariety differences in foliar area (mean leaf size × number of leaves) were taken into account. Feeding larvae on leaves of either of the five box‐tree varieties revealed a significant effect of the seasonal generation of C. perspectalis on the growth rate of individuals but no influence of the box‐tree variety. Larvae from the spring generation show the highest growth rate, those from the summer generation a moderate and those from the autumn generation the lowest growth rate. The moths used in the experiments may belong to the 10th to 12th generation present in Europe. The time elapsed since their introduction may be too short for an optimal adaptation to the partly novel diet encountered by the invasive moth.     

Diapause induction and photoperiodic clock in Chilo suppressalis (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Crambidae)

The mature larvae of the rice stem borer, Chilo suppressalis Walker (Lepidoptera: Crambidae) enters facultative diapause in response to short‐day conditions in the autumn (August–September). Diapause induction and photoperiodic clock mechanism were investigated in C. suppressalis larvae reared on an artificial diet in the present study. The critical night length for diapause induction was about 9 h 53 min to 10 h 39 min at 22 to 28°C. The third‐instar larvae were found to be relatively sensitive to diapause induction. Photoperiodic response under non‐24‐h light–dark cycles showed that scotophase length played an essential role in the induction of larval diapause in C. suppressalis, and consecutive exposure to long‐night cycles was necessary for a high diapause incidence. In the Nanda–Hamner experiment, diapause incidence peaked at scotophase of 12 h and dropped rapidly at scotophases > 24 h. In the Bünsow experiment, diapause incidence was clearly suppressed, especially at the light pulse located 8 h in the scotophase. Both the Nanda–Hamner and Bünsow experiments showed no rhythmic fluctuations with a period of about 24 h; thus the photoperiodic clock in C. suppressalis is a non‐oscillatory hourglass timer or a rapidly damping circadian oscillator.     

Diapause and seasonal life cycle strategy in the house spider, Achaearanea tepidariorum (Araneae, Theridiidae)

Abstract In order to elucidate the mechanism regulating its seasonal life cycle, the photoperiodic response of Achaearanea tepidariorum has been analysed. Nymphal development was faster in long-day and slower in short-day photoperiods. The combined action of low temperature, poor food supply and short daylength induced diapause at an earlier developmental stage than short days alone. Thus, photoperiod is a primary factor inducing nymphal diapause, but the diapausing instar is influenced by both temperature and food supply. Hibernating nymphs became unresponsive to photoperiod in late December. After hibernation, however, sensitivity was restored and the nymphs remained sensitive to photoperiod throughout their life. This spider could also enter an imaginal or reproductive diapause. Photoperiod was again a primary inducing factor and temperature modified the photoperiodic response to some extent. The induction of the reproductive diapause was almost temperature-compensated whereas development was not. So the involvement of a photoperiodic counter system was suggested. Irrespective of whether the nymph had experienced diapause or not, the imaginal diapause was induced in response to a short-day photoperiod after adult moult. Based on these observations, the seasonal life cycle and the adaptive significance of nymphal and imaginal diapause are discussed.     

Chrysophytes from some lakes and peat-bogs in the eastern Pyrenees,Catalonia (Spain)

The results of a phycological study on the chrysophyte flora in the eastern Pyrenees (Catalonia, Spain) are presented. The studied area is located between 1600 and 2600 m above sea level, on primarily acid substrate. A total of 34 taxa have been identified, 25 of which are new or very rarely known in Spain. Information about the cell morphology and ecological data of the studied aquatic systems are presented.     

Life cycle and morphology of Anisops sardeus Herrich-Schaeffer, 1849 (Heteroptera: Notonectidae)

The life cycle of Anisops sardeus was studied by rearing individuals from egg to adult stage in laboratory conditions at a water temperature of 23.2 ± 1.4 °C during the wet season (May-June) and 19 ± 1.8 °C during the dry season (December-February). The incubation period averaged 8 ± 0.8 and 11.5 ± 1.7 days during the wet and dry seasons, respectively. Duration of the five instars averaged 3.4 ± 0.5, 4.4 ± 0.5, 4.8 ± 0.8, 5 ± 0.7, and 6.9 ± 0.7 days, respectively during the wet season, and 4.9 ± 0.7, 6.5 ± 1.1, 7.5 ± 1.1, 8.1 ± 0.7, and 9.4 ± 1.1 days, respectively during the dry season. Total developmental time averaged 32.5 ± 2 and 47.9 ± 2.8 days in the wet and dry seasons, respectively. The average period of incubation and developmental time of the five instars were shorter in the wet season as compared to those in the dry season. But individuals were larger in the dry season. The variations in morphometric ratios of different characteristic features of laboratory reared specimens among different developmental stages in both the wet and dry seasons, and field collected specimens in the wet season were highly significant as revealed by one-way MANOVA (F = 95.45, p < 0.001; F = 124.38, p < 0.001; F = 5022.85, p < 0.001, respectively). Five instars are described in detail with emphasis on 29 morphometric ratios. This study discerned six morphometric ratios such as length of wing pad/ width of wing pad (WL/WW), length of wing pad/body length (WL/BL), length of head/length of body (HL/BL), length of meso femur/length of meso tibia (FE2L/TI2L), synthlipsis/width of head (S/HW), and vertex/synthlipsis (V/S) which can be used for discriminating instars I-V.     

Diapause induction, maintenance and termination in the rice stem borer Chilo suppressalis (Walker)

The rice stem borer, Chilo suppressalis, enters facultative diapause as fully grown larvae in response to short-day conditions during the autumn. Our results showed that the critical night length for diapause induction in C. suppressalis was between 10 h 22 min and 10 h 45 min at 22, 25 and 28 °C, 11 h 18 min at 31 °C, and between 10 h 5 min and 10 h 20 min under field conditions (average temperature ranged from 27.2 to 30.7 °C). The diapause incidence declined in ultra-long nights (18-22 h scotophases) and DD, and increased in ultra-short nights (2-6 h scotophases) and LL. Moreover, we found that the third instar was the stage most sensitive to the photoperiod, and night length played an essential role in the initiation of diapause. Night-interruption experiments with a 1-h light pulse at LD 12:12 (light 12:dark 12) exhibited two troughs of diapause inhibition, with one occurring in early scotophase and the other in late scotophase. Field observations for six years showed that most larvae entered winter diapause in August in response to declining day lengths, despite the high temperatures prevailing during August. By periodically transferring the field-collected overwintering larvae to different photoperiods and temperatures, the results showed that photoperiod had a significant influence on diapause development during the early phase of diapause, while high temperature significantly accelerated the termination of larval diapause.     

黄杨绢野螟滞育诱导及光温反应

为了探讨黄杨绢野螟Diaphania perspectalis(Walker)越冬滞育特性,在自然条件与室内恒温下对黄杨绢野螟滞育诱导的光周期反应与光敏感龄期进行了研究。结果表明:该虫的光周期反应属于长光照反应型,短光照是引起黄杨绢野螟幼虫滞育的主要因子。幼虫的光周期反应对温度敏感,在恒温25℃和28℃条件下,诱导滞育的临界光周期分别为13h36min和12h50min。在日平均温度为26.7℃条件下,诱导滞育的临界光周期为13h40min。在恒温25℃条件下的滞育敏感虫龄试验表明,2～3龄幼虫即孵化后4～9d的幼虫对光周期反应最敏感。     

Life cycle changes during 12 successive generations of laboratory colonisation of the leafroller Cnephasia jactatana (Walker) (Lepidoptera: Tortricidae) on artificial diet

Abstract

Close monitoring of the lepidopteran leafroller Cnephasia jactatana under laboratory colonisation revealed few distinct effects of successive rearing on artificial diet on the life cycle. The second laboratory generation had a prolonged development time and altered sex synchronism in pupation and eclosion patterns. Some deleterious changes were observed in later generations, including decreases in fertility, egg hatch and sperm motility, failure of mating adults to separate, and pupal and adult malformations. These changes were not adaptive, but were due to incompatibility with the general purpose diet (GPD) used; they were absent under sub-colonisation on a sheepnut-bean based diet (SBD). Success in the laboratory colonisation of C. jactatana is attributed to a random mating protocol, choice of environmental conditions representing the wild habitat, and a rapid rate of population growth.     

Diapause and cold tolerance in Asian species of the parasitoid Leptopilina (Hymenoptera: Figitidae)

Diapause and cold tolerance are essential for temperate insects to pass the winter, with the mechanisms controlling these two traits varying considerably among insects. In the present study, diapause and cold tolerance are compared among three Leptopilina species: Leptopilina japonica Novkovi? & Kimura, Leptopilina victoriae Nordlander and Leptopilina ryukyuensis Novkovi? & Kimura, all larval parasitoids of frugivorous drosophilid flies, with the aim of understanding their climatic adaptations. The first species is divided into the temperate (Leptopilina japonica japonica) and subtropical subspecies (Leptopilina japonica formosana), and the latter two species are distributed in the tropical and subtropical regions. The temperate subspecies of L. japonica enters prepupal diapause at low temperatures (15 or 18 °C), irrespective of photoperiod, and some individuals enter diapause when exposed to 0 °C for 1 or 2 day(s) or when placed at low humidity. Leptopilina victoriae also shows signs of diapause initiation at 15 °C, although L. ryukyuensis and L. j. formosana from the subtropical regions do not. Preimaginal viability at low temperature (13, 14 or 15 °C) is usually lower in L. victoriae from the tropical regions compared with L. japonica or L. ryukyuensis from the temperate or subtropical regions. Diapausing prepupae of the temperate subspecies appear to be cold tolerant. However, the cold tolerance of nondiapausing prepupae, pupae and adult females varies little among the tropical, subtropical and temperate species or subspecies, and adult males of the temperate subspecies of L. japonica are less cold tolerant than those of the tropical or subtropical species or subspecies. Cold tolerance may be unnecessary, except for diapausing individuals of the temperate species, because nondiapausing individuals appear in warmer seasons.     

人工饲养背摇蚊幼虫龄数和龄期的测定

本文采用了人工饲养定期取样的方法,测定了背摇蚊Chironomus dorsalis(Anderson)幼虫的龄数以及各龄的龄期。分别测量不同发育阶段幼虫的头壳长、颏中齿顶端至冠突前缘间距离、头壳宽、颏宽、颏中齿宽、触角长、触角基节长、触角比(触角基节与其余各节的长度之比)等8项指标,以期得到区分和判定幼虫虫龄的最佳形态特征及指标。运用频次分布、均差分析和回归分析对8项指标测量数据进行统计分析,结果表明,背摇蚊幼虫可分4龄,触角长可作为理想的分龄特征和分龄指标,其次是颏中齿顶端至冠突前缘间距离和颏宽。利用种群众数龄期法计算1-4龄幼虫的平均龄期分别为1.32 d、2.00 d、7.51 d和8.39 d,幼虫期共为19.22 d。     

荔枝蒂蛀虫幼虫龄数及各发育阶段在不同温度下的发育历期

【目的】荔枝蒂蛀虫 Conopomorpha sinensis Bradley是荔枝龙眼上的主要害虫,以幼虫蛀果为害。本研究旨在明确荔枝蒂蛀虫幼虫龄数及不同温度下各虫态和各龄幼虫的发育历期,为该虫发生规律、预测预报和防控技术研究提供基础生物学数据。【方法】定期收集处于不同发育时期的荔枝蒂蛀虫幼虫,测量幼虫头壳宽度,对其进行频次分析,Crosby指数验证和曲线回归分析,以确定幼虫龄数。通过室内群体饲养的方法,测定了17~38℃区间8个温度梯度下荔枝蒂蛀虫各虫态和各龄幼虫的发育历期,并采用线性日度模型对其发育速率与温度的关系进行回归分析。【结果】根据荔枝蒂蛀虫幼虫头壳宽度频次分布图,其头壳宽度的频次分布可明显分为5个区域,说明其幼虫分5个龄期,符合Dyar定律。1-5龄幼虫的头壳宽度分别为：0.092~0.120, 0.140~0.206, 0.217~0.319, 0.356~0.523和0.582~0.728 mm。温度对荔枝蒂蛀虫卵、各龄幼虫和蛹的发育历期有明显影响,其发育历期均随温度的升高而缩短,其发育速率均与温度呈显著正相关,并符合线性回归模型。在20~32℃,荔枝蒂蛀虫可完成世代发育;在17℃时,该虫只能发育至3龄幼虫;在35℃时,蛹多不能羽化;在38℃时,卵多不能孵化。在20~32℃,其世代历期为41.16~19.34 d,蛹期为12.74~5.38 d,而产卵前期为4.75~4.22 d,温度对产卵前期无明显影响。在20~35℃,荔枝蒂蛀虫幼虫可正常发育,其1龄幼虫龄期为4.50~1.17 d,2龄幼虫期为2.09~1.40 d,3龄幼虫期为2.84~1.00 d,4龄幼虫期为3.41~1.18 d,5龄幼虫期为3.00~1.37 d,预蛹期为2.41~0.69 d。在17~35℃,荔枝蒂蛀虫卵可正常孵化,其卵期为7.73~2.09 d。【结论】荔枝蒂蛀虫幼虫分5个龄期,不同于前人所报道的4个龄期。在20~32℃温度范围内,卵、各龄幼虫和蛹的发育历期均随温度升高而缩短。本研究结果有助于荔枝蒂蛀虫预测预报方案的制定和实施。     

The effect of temperature on the development times of eggs,naupliar and copepodite stages of five species of cyclopoid copepods

The duration times of eggs, combined naupliar instars and of the different copepodite stages of five species of cyclopoid copepods — Acanthocyclops robustus, Cyclops vicinus, Diacyclops bicuspidatus, Mesocyclops leuckarti, and Thermocyclops crassus — were investigated at five different temperatures. The five species can be divided in two groups: two species, C. vicinus and D. bicuspidatus, adapted to cold water conditions and three species, A. robustus, M. leuckarti and T. crassus adapted to warm water conditions. The cold water species showed a faster egg development than M. leuckarti and T. crassus at 5–15 °C. The eggs and instars of the warm water species M. leuckarti tend to develop faster than those of the former two species at higher temperatures. A. robustus showed the shortest egg and instar development at 10–25 °C. The warm water species T. crassus produced no eggs at 10 °C and temperatures below. At higher temperatures (20, 25 °C) the egg and instar duration times were similar or longer than those of the other species. When cultured in total darkness a great part of the C_IV respectively C_V copepodites of the summer forms entered arrest and the percentage of copepodites that showed an arrest of development was highest at lowest temperatures. The present results are compared with data from literature and differences are discussed.     

Influences of Temperature and Desiccation on Breaking Diapause in the Gemmules of Eunapius fraqilis (Leidy)

Summary

Most specimens of Eunapius fraqilis in Gallup Pond (Connecticut) apparently formed gemmules in September and then died. The gemmules were initially in a protracted diapause which was gradually broken during the winter. They germinated in the pond between late March and late April. Gemmules collected during the fall did not germinate during four months when they were kept at 20°C. Other gemmules from the same collections, which were kept at 5°C for several months before they were placed at 20°C, exhibited good germination. Finally, gemmules that did not germinate following a cold treatment could be activated by drying them at 20°C for seven days and then maintaining them in pond water at 20°C. These results suggest that low temperature and desiccation are effective in breaking gemmule diapause of Eunapius fraqilis.     

Diapause in the seasonal cycle of stink bugs (Heteroptera,Pentatomidae) from the Temperate Zone

The paper reviews the data on diapause and related phenomena in stink bugs (Heteroptera: Pentatomidae). Using stink bugs as examples, the consecutive stages of the complex dynamic process of diapause (such as diapause preparation, induction, initiation, maintenance, termination, post-diapause quiescence, and resumption of direct development) are described and discussed. Out of 43 pentatomid species studied in relation to diapause in the Temperate Zone up to date, the majority (38 species) overwinter as adults, two species—as eggs, and another two species—as nymphs. Pentatoma rufipes is believed to be able to overwinter at different stages of its life cycle. Less than 5 % of pentatomid species are probably able to overwinter twice. Only five species have obligate diapause, others have the facultative one. Day-length and temperature are the main diapause inducing factors in the majority of species. The role of food in the control of seasonal development is essential in the pentatomid species feeding on plant seeds. In different species, different stages are sensitive to day-length. Some pentatomids retain sensitivity to photoperiod even after diapause, others lose it and become photo-refractory (temporarily or permanently). In Pentatomidae, such seasonal adaptations as photoperiodic control of nymphal growth rates, seasonal body colour change, migrations, and summer diapause (aestivation) are widely represented, whereas wing and/or wing muscle polymorphism has not been reported yet. In the subfamily Podopinae, induction of facultative reproductive winter diapause is under the control of photoperiod and temperature. All species feed on seeds and their seasonal development to a great extent reflects availability of food. However, the same food preferences and pattern of seasonal development are also characteristic to many species from the subfamily Pentatominae. All species of the subfamily Asopinae are predators. Among them, Picromerus bidens and Apateticus cynicus have obligate embryonic winter diapause, which is rear among true bugs. At the same time, A. cynicus and Podisus maculiventris belong to the same tribe but have different types of diapause: obligate embryonic diapause in A. cynicus and facultative adult diapause in P. maculiventris. Other Asopinae species studied up to date have facultative adult diapause controlled by photoperiod and temperature with probably only one exception: in Andrallus spinidens, adult diapause is controlled by temperature, and photoperiod plays only a secondary role. Thus, in spite of the similar habits and feeding types among Asopinae, the species of this subfamily have different types of diapause and the latter is controlled by different factors. In the subfamily Pentatominae, most species overwinter as adults and induction of their diapause is controlled by the long-day type photoperiodic response, in spite of the differences in their feeding preferences (within phytophagy). However, there are some exceptions in this subfamily, too: Palomena prasina, P. angulosa and Menida scotti have obligate diapause, which conditions univoltinism in these pentatomids. In M. scotti, only females have obligate adult diapause, whereas males remain physiologically active through the whole winter, this pattern being unusual for Heteroptera. The univoltine seasonal cycle of this species with summer diapause (aestivation) and apparent migrations is similar to that of shield bugs (Scutelleridae). According to the analysis of seasonal development, the evolution of seasonal adaptations in Pentatomidae does not directly reflect their phylogeny. However, individual genera, small tribes or even subfamilies have similar complexes of seasonal adaptations. At the same time, Pentatominae is a large and apparently collected taxon, but most of species in this subfamily have the same facultative adult diapause.