Providing the requested historical consultation: Hekala and Buell's rebuttal to Johnsons' reply

Hekala and Buell provide a detailed example of the use of historical data to answer the original question posed by Johnson and Johnson concerning possible links between genetic kinsmen in support or conflict situations in Northern Europe during the Middle Ages. The authors affirm the viability of sociobiological principles when coupled with an appropriate use of historical data. In brief, the article confirms the findings of Daly and Wilson on homicide and cultural perceptions of kinship, refutes the final conclusions of Johnson and Johnson, and provides a clear, step-by-step instructional model of historical methodology for non-historians.     

Refusing to Sing: Gender,Kinship and Patriliny in Macedonia

The issue of whether formal kinship structures and sentiments reflect the reality of social relations was of particular concern to specialists at the height of the kinship debates in the 1960s and 1970s, as it continues to be in some contemporary studies. So too, the classifications ‘patrilineal’ or ‘matrilineal’ have clearly been shown to be problematic given that there are multiple levels of discourse and relational and ideational realities in any given society. For many contemporary kinship specialists in fact no simple correlation can be made between type of descent system and actual social relations, especially relations between men and women. However, some anthropologists continue to argue that patrilineal kinship systems are somehow indicative of control or domination by men or, put inversely, of women's lack of power and authority. It is argued in this paper that even where the formal kinship structures and ideological discourses are dominated by agnation as appears to be the case in south Slav societies generally, and Macedonian in particular, this is not automatically mirrored in gender relations between men and women. In short, there is a long leap from patriliny to patriarchy.     

Flexible kinship: caring for AIDS orphans in rural Lesotho

HIV/AIDS has devastated families in rural Lesotho, leaving many children orphaned. Families have adapted to the increase in the number of orphans and HIV‐positive children in ways that provide children with the best possible care. Though local ideas about kinship and care are firmly rooted in patrilineal social organization, in practice, maternal caregivers, often grandmothers, are increasingly caring for orphaned children. Negotiations between affinal kin capitalize on flexible kinship practices in order to legitimate new patterns of care, which have shifted towards a model that often favours matrilocal practices of care in the context of idealized patrilineality.     

Kinship and Cooperation

Chagnon’s analysis of a well-known axe fight in the Yanomamö village of Mishimishiböwei-teri (Chagnon and Bugos 1979) is among the earliest empirical tests of kin selection theory for explaining cooperation in humans. Kin selection theory describes how cooperation can be organized around genetic kinship and is a fundamental tool for understanding cooperation within family groups. Previous analysis on groups of cooperative Lamaleran whale hunters suggests that the role of genetic kinship as a principle for organizing cooperative human groups could be less important in certain cases than previously thought (Alvard Human Nature 14:129–163, 2003b). Evidence that supports a strong role for genetic kinship—groups are found to be more related than expected by chance—may be spurious because of the correlation between social structure and genetic kinship. Reanalysis of Chagnon’s data using matrix regression techniques, however, confirms that genetic kinship was the primary organizing principle in the axe fight; affinal relations were also important, whereas lineage identity explained nothing.     

Death and Kinship in Hinduism: Structural and Functional Interpretations

This paper is, first, a structural analysis demonstrating that in Hindu sacred "law" death rites reflect a conception of kinship wherein intimacy is affected not only by such matters as genealogical distance, but also by differences in spiritual purity among kinsmen. Second, the paper shows that structural analysis of particular civilizations have more than intrinsic value, that they are also a necessary adjunct to highly general functional theories.     

Kin structure and social organization in the spotted eagle ray,Aetobatus narinari,off coastal Sarasota,FL

Observations of elasmobranchs in groups suggest sociality in sharks and rays. However we currently lack a strong understanding of social structure and the role kinship has in structuring group organization in cartilaginous fishes. The spotted eagle ray, Aetobatus narinari (Euphrasen, 1790) frequents the shallow waters near Sarasota, FL, often in pairs or groups suggesting a social component to their behavior. In the present study, eight eagle ray-specific microsatellite markers were used to investigate relatedness in A. narinari groups, and used to determine if kin structure contributed to group organization. Using regression-based and maximum-likelihood approaches, relatedness was quantified and compared within and among groups of juveniles, and adults in mixed sex and same sex groups. Results showed a lack of kin-structured sociality in A. narinari, suggesting factors apart from relatedness shape social interactions among spotted eagle rays in the near-shore waters of Sarasota, FL. Our results add to the limited amount of published literature on elasmobranch kinship, which are important for understanding implications of anthropogenic disturbance on genetic variability for coastal populations.     

Perseverance and food sharing among closely affiliated female chimpanzees

Chimpanzees (Pan troglodytes) have been frequently observed to share food with one another, with numerous hypotheses proposed to explain why. These often focus on reciprocity exchanges for social benefits (e.g., food for grooming, food for sex, affiliation, kinship, and dominance rank) as well as sharing based on begging and deterring harassment. Although previous studies have shown that each of these hypotheses has a viable basis, they have only examined situations in which males have preferential access to food whereby females are required to obtain the food from males. For example, studies on male chimpanzee food sharing take advantage of successful crop-raids and/or acquisitions of meat from hunting, situations that only leave females access to food controlled by male food possessors. This begs the question how and with whom might a female chimpanzee in sole possession of a high-quality food item choose to share? In two large captive groups of chimpanzees, we examined each of the hypotheses with female food possessors of a high-quality food item and compared these data to a previous study examining food transfers from male chimpanzees. Our results show that alpha females shared significantly more with closely affiliated females displaying perseverance, while kinship and dominance rank had no effect. This positive interaction between long-term affiliation and perseverance shows that individuals with whom the female possessor was significantly affiliated received more food while persevering more than those with neutral or avoidant relationships towards her. Furthermore, females with avoidant relationships persevered far less than others, suggesting that this strategy is not equally available to all individuals. In comparison to the mixed-sex trials, females chose to co-feed with other females more than was observed when the alpha male was sharing food. This research indicates that male and female chimpanzees (as possessors of a desired food item) share food in ways influenced by different factors and strategies.     

Aggression does not increase friendly contacts among bystanders in geladas (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Theropithecus gelada</Emphasis>)

Aggression within a social group may affect bystanders’ affinitive behaviour with other bystanders. After a conflict such affiliations, termed ‘quadratic’, may serve to reduce tension. This particular kind of conflict management has been found in hamadryas baboons. Following the classical and well-established approach for studying post-conflict behaviour [post-conflict/matched control method (PC/MC)], we collected behavioural data on a group of geladas (Theropithecus gelada) in order to check for the presence of quadratic affiliations. A total of 192 PC/MC pairs were collected on both adults and immature individuals. We did not find any increase of affiliation levels between bystanders during PC compared with MC condition. The distribution of affinitive quadratic interactions was not affected by either kinship or relationship quality of bystanders. Moreover, comparison of yawning and self-scratching behaviours (two of the typical non-primate displacement activities under stressful situations) recorded during PCs and MCs did not show any variation in the two conditions. Probably, due to the male tolerance and social cohesiveness in geladas, witnessing a fight does not necessarily induce a sufficient increase of tension in bystanders to be reduced by quadratic affiliation.     

Monogamous male mice bias behaviour towards females according to very small differences in kinship

To the extent that relatedness between mates predicts their reproductive success, individuals are expected to bias their behaviours towards opposite-sex conspecifics according to differences in kinship. Here we show that monogamous male oldfield mice, Peromyscus polionotus rhoadsi, bias their social behaviour towards unfamiliar, distantly related females according to an average 1.3% difference in their kinship to these potential mates. Males in the present study favoured less-related females. Previous empirical investigations have not demonstrated behavioural biases based on such small kinship differences. Consequently, these small differences in kinship have been considered inadequate to drive the evolution of mate choice, particularly by males. Even a small incremental difference in mate quality, however, may significantly affect male reproductive success, especially for monogamous species or those that require maternal care. This study has demonstrated that the social preferences of male oldfield mice are distributed between females according to small differences in their kinship to these potential mates. Copyright 2003 Published by Elsevier Science Ltd on behalf of The Association for the Study of Animal Behaviour      

Kin and kinship psychology both influence cooperative coordination in Yasawa,Fiji

Genes shared through common ancestry are among the oldest social bonds. Despite these ancient roots, humans often co-opt the psychology of genetic relatedness and extend it to genetically unrelated others through culturally-acquired kinship systems. We investigate how genealogical relatedness and kinship norms might mutually support or oppose each other within a known kin network in Yasawa, Fiji. Yasawans' reliance on intensive, kin-based cooperation for daily life makes Yasawan kinship an interesting test case to compare the effects of genealogy and kinship norms. Confirming qualitative ethnographic claims, we find that Yasawan kin terms can be described in two dimensions of respect/closeness and joking/authority. Individual players use different strategies for genealogical relatives and non-relatives by making economic game choices that are increasingly beneficial to partners who share a higher percentage of genes through common ancestry. However, pairs of players are most successful in coordinating their game choices despite conflicting self-interests based upon kinship norms relevant to hierarchy. Thus, while genealogical relatedness may boost generosity, the extra behavioral structuring from kinship norms facilitates more productive but difficult coordinated action even when communication is not possible.     

Distribution of affiliative behaviors among adult females within a group of wild patas monkeys in a nonmating,nonbirth season

The distribution of four affiliative behaviors (proximity within 3 m, allogrooming, contact calling, and co-night-resting) were examined in a group of wild patas monkeys (Erythrocebus patas) during a nonmating, nonbirth season. To a greater or lesser extent, dominance rank and kinship influenced these behaviors of the adult females. Since high-ranking females tended to exhibit some of these behaviors with high frequency, they were considered to be acting as the focus of affiliative behaviors and as the center for group cohesion. Furthermore, related adult females also tended to exhibit some of these behaviors with a high frequency toward one another, so that matrilineal kinship was also seen to be an important factor for group cohesion. In contrast, the harem male tended to exhibit these behaviors at a low frequency and/or had no affiliative partner for any of them. Thus, it appears that the social organization of the patas group is concentric, being composed of high-ranking females in the center, low-ranking females at the periphery, and the harem male at the distant periphery.     

Kinship and Dominance Rank Influence the Strength of Social Bonds in Female Geladas (Theropithecus gelada)

In many primates, close social relationships are associated with lower stress, better health, and increased life span. However, individuals do not form bonds indiscriminately; rather, they focus on a few primary partners. This suggests that the identity of the partner may be as important as the bond itself. Although dominance and kinship have repeatedly emerged as salient predictors of female relationships, most of this research comes from species with multimale, multifemale groups and strict dominance hierarchies. Further, kinship was typically determined based on either behavior or on known mother–daughter relationships alone. To understand the generality of previous findings, we use behavioral and genetic sampling to examine whether dominance rank and/or genetic relatedness mediate female social bonds in geladas (Theropithecus gelada) living in the Simien Mountains National Park, Ethiopia. First, we found that, even though females in the same unit are closely related, female geladas still preferentially bond with the closest of these relatives. Second, females that were close kin formed the strongest bonds with females of similar rank to themselves. Finally, rank disparity predicted grooming rates but did not predict whether females were nearest neighbors. This suggests that, in contrast with data from other cercopithecines, spatial proximity among females may be less indicative of strong social bonds for geladas, a species that routinely exhibits a high degree of spatial overlap with extra-unit individuals. Together, these results highlight the importance of combining genetic data with detailed behavioral observations to help us understand how individuals choose and interact with social partners.     

Detecting instability in animal social networks: genetic fragmentation is associated with social instability in rhesus macaques

The persistence of biological systems requires evolved mechanisms which promote stability. Cohesive primate social groups are one example of stable biological systems, which persist in spite of regular conflict. We suggest that genetic relatedness and its associated kinship structure are a potential source of stability in primate social groups as kinship structure is an important organizing principle in many animal societies. We investigated the effect of average genetic relatedness per matrilineal family on the stability of matrilineal grooming and agonistic interactions in 48 matrilines from seven captive groups of rhesus macaques. Matrilines with low average genetic relatedness show increased family-level instability such as: more sub-grouping in their matrilineal groom network, more frequent fighting with kin, and higher rates of wounding. Family-level instability in multiple matrilines within a group is further associated with group-level instability such as increased wounding. Stability appears to arise from the presence of clear matrilineal structure in the rhesus macaque group hierarchy, which is derived from cohesion among kin in their affiliative and agonistic interactions with each other. We conclude that genetic relatedness and kinship structure are an important source of group stability in animal societies, particularly when dominance and/or affilative interactions are typically governed by kinship.     

<Emphasis Type="Italic">Chrysocoma ciliata</Emphasis> L. (Asteraceae) in the Lesotho Highlands: an anthropogenically introduced invasive or a niche coloniser?

Over recent decades, concern has been raised regarding the management of Chrysocoma ciliata L. (Asteraceae syn. C. tenuifolia) in the eastern Lesotho Highlands. This shrub species is argued to be a Karroid invasive introduced anthropogenically within the last century. Historical botanical records in Lesotho are scarce, so the origins of this species in the region are as yet uncertain. Speculation is based on the contemporary abundance of these shrubs in overgrazed areas throughout the highlands. This study presents fossil pollen records for the eastern Lesotho Highlands which confirm the presence of this species intermittently throughout the past ~6000 cal yr BP. In so doing, this study refutes claims that the species was introduced anthropogenically within the past 100 years, and of its narrow definition as a Karoo species invasive in Lesotho. The intermittent appearance of this species in the pollen record, however, indicates that it is climate sensitive, colonising the wetlands under conditions unsuitable to other plant species. Evidence presented here calls for a re-evaluation of the categorisation of C. ciliata as an invasive in the Lesotho Highlands, and more critically, for a redevelopment of the environmental management policies which involve this species.     

A revision of the genus Dolichos (Fabaceae,Papilionoideae, Phaseoleae), including Lesotho and Swaziland

A revision of the genus Dolichos in South Africa (Lesotho and Swaziland included) is presented. This legume genus, belonging to the bean tribe Phaseoleae, mainly has an African distribution, extending into Asia. In South Africa it is represented by nine species, two (D. sericeus and D. trilobus) of which extend into Tropical Africa. Dolichos is closely related to the genus Macrotyloma from which it can be distinguished by the short standard appendages, reticulate pollen and the generally purple flowers (standard appendages long, pollen tuberculate or spinulose and flowers yellow or orange in Macrotyloma). It also has affinities with the genera Dipogon and Lablab. The correct nomenclature, as well as complete synonymy, typification and distribution maps of all the species are provided.     

Microsatellite markers reveal the potential for kin selection on black grouse leks

The evolution of social behaviour has puzzled biologists since Darwin. Since Hamilton''s theoretical work in the 1960s it has been realized that social behaviour may evolve through the effects of kinship. By helping relatives, an individual may pass on its genes despite negative effects on its own reproduction. Leks are groups of males that females visit primarily to mate. The selective advantage for males to join such social groups has been given much recent attention, but no clear picture has yet emerged. Here we show, using microsatellite analysis, that males but not females of a lekking bird (the black grouse, Tetrao tetrix) are genetically structured at the lek level. We interpret this structuring to be the effects of strong natal philopatry in males. This has the consequence that males on any specific lek should be more related than expected by chance as indicated by our genetic data. Our results thus suggest that kin selection is a factor that needs to be considered in the evolution and maintenance of the lek mating system in black grouse and sheds new light on models of lek evolution.     

The social organization of resident-type killer whales (Orcinus orca) in Avacha Gulf,Northwest Pacific,as revealed through association patterns and acoustic similarity

Northeast Pacific resident-type killer whales (Orcinus orca) are known to form stable associations based on kinship between maternal relatives (matrilines) with a system of vocal dialects thought to reflect kinship relationships. We analyzed association patterns and acoustic similarity to study the social organization of killer whales in Avacha Gulf (Kamchatka, Russia), in the Northwest Pacific. The resident-type killer whales of Avacha Gulf formed temporally stable units that included maternal relatives with no dispersal observed. Acoustically, the killer whale community of Avacha Gulf was characterized by a system of dialects comparable to the communities of Northeast Pacific resident-type killer whales. Different units rarely associated with each other and these associations were nonrandom. Associations at different spatial levels did not always coincide with each other and with the patterns of acoustic similarity. Associations between units could change quickly irrespective of kinship relationships. The vocal dialect of a unit, which is more stable than the association patterns between units, might better reflect the overall kinship relationships. The stability and frequency of associations between units depended on the number of mature males in a unit, which could contribute to differences in the speed of change in vocal dialects and association patterns.     

Synergistic effects of kinship, sex and rank in the behavioural interactions of captive stump-tailed macaques

In almost all non-human primate species kinship, sex and rank bias the patterning of interactions among subjects, seemingly in a way that favours the individual's fitness. A number of studies have been done in order to study separately the effects of these variables, concluding that an adequate model of interactions cannot be developed assuming preponderance of a single variable. The 'willingness' of one animal to interact with another can be explained as the result of assessing the possible outcomes (proximate and/or ultimate) of the interaction. The interrelationship of variables such as kinship, sex and rank, among others, provides the actors with a basis for deciding their rates of social interactions. The following study was done to assess whether kinship, rank and sex exerted independent, additive effects in the within-group distributions of eight social behaviour categories of captive groups of stump-tailed macaques. We found that the three variables synergistically affected the patterning of all behavioural categories. This suggests that the pay-offs of social interactions do not vary linearly, being intrinsically correlated with the actors' attributes so that uncertainty in the choice of a potential partner is minimized.     

Does the ice rat Otomys sloggetti robertsi contribute to habitat change in Lesotho?

Rodents can contribute to habitat change through their activities. In the Lesotho Drakensberg, soil erosion has increased markedly recently, supposedly as a result of the combined activities of the ice rat Otomys sloggetti robertsi and domestic livestock. Ice rats are diurnal, herbivorous, burrow-dwelling rodents, endemic to the alpine regions of southern Africa. We erected exclosure plots to investigate the single or combined effects of ice rats and domesticated livestock on the vegetation and soil characteristics in their habitat and whether their activities potentially influence soil erosion. Contrary to our prediction, vegetation changes and soil movement were greatest in plots accessed only by ice rats. Therefore, ice rats are likely to be a major contributor to habitat change in the Lesotho Drakensberg because of their foraging and burrowing activities, and soil erosion is likely to be exacerbated by their increasing population numbers recently. Nonetheless, soil erosion is a complex problem involving several abiotic and biotic contributing factors, and long-term studies are required to fully understand the determinants underlying the causes of erosion in the Lesotho Drakensberg.