Fusion Proteins and Select Lipids Cooperate as Membrane Receptors for the Soluble N-Ethylmaleimide-sensitive Factor Attachment Protein Receptor (SNARE) Vam7p

Vam7p, the vacuolar soluble Q_c-SNARE, is essential for yeast vacuole fusion. The large tethering complex, homotypic fusion and vacuole protein sorting complex (HOPS), and phosphoinositides, which interact with the Vam7p PX domain, have each been proposed to serve as its membrane receptors. Studies with the isolated organelle cannot determine whether these receptor elements suffice and whether ligands or mutations act directly or indirectly on Vam7p binding to the membrane. Using pure components that are active in reconstituted vacuolar fusion, we now find that Vam7p binds to membranes through its combined affinities for several vacuolar membrane constituents: HOPS, phosphatidylinositol 3-phosphate, SNAREs, and acidic phospholipids. Acidic lipids allow low concentrations of Vam7p to suffice for fusion; without acidic lipids, the block to fusion is partially bypassed by high concentrations of Vam7p.     

The N- and C-terminal Domains of Tomosyn Play Distinct Roles in Soluble N-Ethylmaleimide-sensitive Factor Attachment Protein Receptor Binding and Fusion Regulation

Tomosyn negatively regulates SNARE-dependent exocytic pathways including insulin secretion, GLUT4 exocytosis, and neurotransmitter release. The molecular mechanism of tomosyn, however, has not been fully elucidated. Here, we reconstituted SNARE-dependent fusion reactions in vitro to recapitulate the tomosyn-regulated exocytic pathways. We then expressed and purified active full-length tomosyn and examined how it regulates the reconstituted SNARE-dependent fusion reactions. Using these defined fusion assays, we demonstrated that tomosyn negatively regulates SNARE-mediated membrane fusion by inhibiting the assembly of the ternary SNARE complex. Tomosyn recognizes the t-SNARE complex and prevents its pairing with the v-SNARE, therefore arresting the fusion reaction at a pre-docking stage. The inhibitory function of tomosyn is mediated by its C-terminal domain (CTD) that contains an R-SNARE-like motif, confirming previous studies carried out using truncated tomosyn fragments. Interestingly, the N-terminal domain (NTD) of tomosyn is critical (but not sufficient) to the binding of tomosyn to the syntaxin monomer, indicating that full-length tomosyn possesses unique features not found in the widely studied CTD fragment. Finally, we showed that the inhibitory function of tomosyn is dominant over the stimulatory activity of the Sec1/Munc18 protein in fusion. We suggest that tomosyn uses its CTD to arrest SNARE-dependent fusion reactions, whereas its NTD is required for the recruitment of tomosyn to vesicle fusion sites through syntaxin interaction.     

Synip Arrests Soluble N-Ethylmaleimide-sensitive Factor Attachment Protein Receptor (SNARE)-dependent Membrane Fusion as a Selective Target Membrane SNARE-binding Inhibitor

The vesicle fusion reaction in regulated exocytosis requires the concerted action of soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) core fusion engine and a group of SNARE-binding regulatory factors. The regulatory mechanisms of vesicle fusion remain poorly understood in most exocytic pathways. Here, we reconstituted the SNARE-dependent vesicle fusion reaction of GLUT4 exocytosis in vitro using purified components. Using this defined fusion system, we discovered that the regulatory factor synip binds to GLUT4 exocytic SNAREs and inhibits the docking, lipid mixing, and content mixing of the fusion reaction. Synip arrests fusion by binding the target membrane SNARE (t-SNARE) complex and preventing the initiation of ternary SNARE complex assembly. Although synip also interacts with the syntaxin-4 monomer, it does not inhibit the pairing of syntaxin-4 with SNAP-23. Interestingly, synip selectively arrests the fusion reactions reconstituted with its cognate SNAREs, suggesting that the defined system recapitulates the biological functions of the vesicle fusion proteins. We further showed that the inhibitory function of synip is dominant over the stimulatory activity of Sec1/Munc18 proteins. Importantly, the inhibitory function of synip is distinct from how other fusion inhibitors arrest SNARE-dependent membrane fusion and therefore likely represents a novel regulatory mechanism of vesicle fusion.     

The Q-soluble N-Ethylmaleimide-sensitive Factor Attachment Protein Receptor (Q-SNARE) SNAP-47 Regulates Trafficking of Selected Vesicle-associated Membrane Proteins (VAMPs)

SNAREs constitute the core machinery of intracellular membrane fusion, but vesicular SNAREs localize to specific compartments via largely unknown mechanisms. Here, we identified an interaction between VAMP7 and SNAP-47 using a proteomics approach. We found that SNAP-47 mainly localized to cytoplasm, the endoplasmic reticulum (ER), and ERGIC and could also shuttle between the cytoplasm and the nucleus. SNAP-47 preferentially interacted with the trans-Golgi network VAMP4 and post-Golgi VAMP7 and -8. SNAP-47 also interacted with ER and Golgi syntaxin 5 and with syntaxin 1 in the absence of Munc18a, when syntaxin 1 is retained in the ER. A C-terminally truncated SNAP-47 was impaired in interaction with VAMPs and affected their subcellular distribution. SNAP-47 silencing further shifted the subcellular localization of VAMP4 from the Golgi apparatus to the ER. WT and mutant SNAP-47 overexpression impaired VAMP7 exocytic activity. We conclude that SNAP-47 plays a role in the proper localization and function of a subset of VAMPs likely via regulation of their transport through the early secretory pathway.     

An Extended Helical Conformation in Domain 3a of Munc18-1 Provides a Template for SNARE (Soluble N-Ethylmaleimide-sensitive Factor Attachment Protein Receptor) Complex Assembly

Munc18-1, a SEC1/Munc18 protein and key regulatory protein in synaptic transmission, can either promote or inhibit SNARE complex assembly. Although the binary inhibitory interaction between Munc18-1 and closed syntaxin 1 is well described, the mechanism of how Munc18-1 stimulates membrane fusion remains elusive. Using a reconstituted assay that resolves vesicle docking, priming, clamping, and fusion during synaptic exocytosis, we show that helix 12 in domain 3a of Munc18-1 stimulates SNAREpin assembly and membrane fusion. A single point mutation (L348R) within helix 12 selectively abolishes VAMP2 binding and the stimulatory function of Munc18-1 in membrane fusion. In contrast, targeting a natural switch site (P335A) at the start of helix 12, which can result in an extended α-helical conformation, further accelerates lipid-mixing. Together with structural modeling, the data suggest that helix 12 provides a folding template for VAMP2, accelerating SNAREpin assembly and membrane fusion. Analogous SEC1/Munc18-SNARE interactions at other transport steps may provide a general mechanism to drive lipid bilayer merger. At the neuronal synapse, Munc18-1 may convert docked synaptic vesicles into a readily releasable pool.     

Calcium Regulates Molecular Interactions of Otoferlin with Soluble NSF Attachment Protein Receptor (SNARE) Proteins Required for Hair Cell Exocytosis

Mutations in otoferlin, a C2 domain-containing ferlin family protein, cause non-syndromic hearing loss in humans (DFNB9 deafness). Furthermore, transmitter secretion of cochlear inner hair cells is compromised in mice lacking otoferlin. In the present study, we show that the C2F domain of otoferlin directly binds calcium (K_D = 267 μm) with diminished binding in a pachanga (D1767G) C2F mouse mutation. Calcium was found to differentially regulate binding of otoferlin C2 domains to target SNARE (t-SNARE) proteins and phospholipids. C2D–F domains interact with the syntaxin-1 t-SNARE motif with maximum binding within the range of 20–50 μm Ca²⁺. At 20 μm Ca²⁺, the dissociation rate was substantially lower, indicating increased binding (K_D = ∼10⁻⁹) compared with 0 μm Ca²⁺ (K_D = ∼10⁻⁸), suggesting a calcium-mediated stabilization of the C2 domain·t-SNARE complex. C2A and C2B interactions with t-SNAREs were insensitive to calcium. The C2F domain directly binds the t-SNARE SNAP-25 maximally at 100 μm and with reduction at 0 μm Ca²⁺, a pattern repeated for C2F domain interactions with phosphatidylinositol 4,5-bisphosphate. In contrast, C2F did not bind the vesicle SNARE protein synaptobrevin-1 (VAMP-1). Moreover, an antibody targeting otoferlin immunoprecipitated syntaxin-1 and SNAP-25 but not synaptobrevin-1. As opposed to an increase in binding with increased calcium, interactions between otoferlin C2F domain and intramolecular C2 domains occurred in the absence of calcium, consistent with intra-C2 domain interactions forming a “closed” tertiary structure at low calcium that “opens” as calcium increases. These results suggest a direct role for otoferlin in exocytosis and modulation of calcium-dependent membrane fusion.     

N-terminal and Central Segments of the Type 1 Ryanodine Receptor Mediate Its Interaction with FK506-binding Proteins

We used site-directed labeling of the type 1 ryanodine receptor (RyR1) and fluorescence resonance energy transfer (FRET) measurements to map RyR1 sequence elements forming the binding site of the 12-kDa binding protein for the immunosuppressant drug, FK506. This protein, FKBP12, promotes the RyR1 closed state, thereby inhibiting Ca²⁺ leakage in resting muscle. Although FKBP12 function is well established, its binding determinants within the RyR1 protein sequence remain unresolved. To identify these sequence determinants using FRET, we created five single-Cys FKBP variants labeled with Alexa Fluor 488 (denoted D-FKBP) and then targeted these D-FKBPs to full-length RyR1 constructs containing decahistidine (His₁₀) “tags” placed within N-terminal (amino acid residues 76–619) or central (residues 2157–2777) regions of RyR1. The FRET acceptor Cy3NTA bound specifically and saturably to these His tags, allowing distance analysis of FRET measured from each D-FKBP variant to Cy3NTA bound to each His tag. Results indicate that D-FKBP binds proximal to both N-terminal and central domains of RyR1, thus suggesting that the FKBP binding site is composed of determinants from both regions. These findings further imply that the RyR1 N-terminal and central domains are proximal to one another, a core premise of the domain-switch hypothesis of RyR function. We observed FRET from GFP fused at position 620 within the N-terminal domain to central domain His-tagged sites, thus further supporting this hypothesis. Taken together, these results support the conclusion that N-terminal and central domain elements are closely apposed near the FKBP binding site within the RyR1 three-dimensional structure.     

转录因子X-box结合蛋白1相互作用蛋白的筛选和鉴定

X-box 结合蛋白 1 是一种重要的转录因子,参与体内多项信号转导过程. 为进一步研究 XBP1 的生物学功能,运用酵母双杂交技术在肝细胞文库中筛选 XBP1 的结合蛋白. 首先运用 PCR 技术扩增获得 XBP1 的编码序列,克隆至 pGEM-T 载体,经测序鉴定后,亚克隆至诱饵载体 pGBKT7 中,转化酵母 AH109(a type). 免疫印迹检测诱饵质粒 pGBKT7-XBP1 在AH109 酵母中的表达之后,含有诱饵质粒的酵母 AH109 与含有肝细胞 cDNA 文库质粒 pACT2 的酵母 Y187(αtype)配合,配合后的二倍体酵母生长在含有 X-α-gal 的营养缺陷型培养基上 (SD/-Trp-Leu-His-Ade) 进行选择和筛选,经测序和序列比对确定阳性克隆的开放读码框 ORF,得到 7 种不同的蛋白质. 为了进一步验证这些筛选蛋白质与 XBP1 的相互作用,克隆其中一种蛋白质 MT1E,并运用 GST pulldown 和免疫共沉淀技术成功检测了 MT1E 和 XBP1 的相互作用(体外 / 体内),结果提示,MT1E 可能是 XBP1 的一个新的调节蛋白. 通过酵母双杂交技术筛选得到的 7 种蛋白质分别与肝细胞基础代谢、蛋白质的合成与运输、细胞的增殖与凋亡密切相关. 上述结果有助于揭示 XBP1 的生物学功能,为进一步探讨 XBP1 的表达和调控机制提供新线索.     

计算机辅助设计可溶性BLyS受体, eBCMA-Fc 融合蛋白及其在大肠杆菌中的表达

B 细胞成熟抗原 (BCMA)是 B淋巴细胞刺激因子(BLyS)的受体之一．它的胞外区与人IgG1 Fc的融合蛋白eBCMA-Fc,又称为诱饵受体,具有拮抗BLyS的活性．为了设计新的拮抗肽,基于BCMA和Fc的晶体结构,通过计算机图形学技术、分子模拟方法,建立了eBCMA-Fc融合蛋白的三维理论结构．利用均方根位移（root mean square distance, RMSD）对eBCMA-Fc融合蛋白与单体eBCMA、Fc构象差异进行分析．融合蛋白eBCMA-Fc中的eBCMA段与单体eBCMA的主链碳原子间RMSD值为0.036 nm,Fc段与单体Fc的主链碳原子间RMSD值为0.064 nm．结果表明,对比单体,融合蛋白eBCMA-Fc并未因eBCMA与Fc直接连接而发生构象的变化．分子对接方法显示,融合蛋白eBCMA-Fc中的BCMA与BLyS作用,而Fc扮演着稳定BCMA构象的支架作用．为进一步验证上述理论分析,构建eBCMA-Fc融合基因,并将载有eBCMA-Fc融合基因的原核表达质粒转化BL21 (DE3)菌、在细菌中表达．目的蛋白经蛋白A亲和柱纯化大约为36 kD,与理论预测值34 kD相近．免疫印迹表明抗人IgG抗体能够识别eBCMA-Fc融合蛋白．ELISA证实,eBCMA-Fc融合蛋白能够结合BLyS．随着eBCMA-Fc融合蛋白增加,结合BLyS的融合蛋白也相应增加．而对照人IgG,即使在高浓度条件下,也不结合BLyS．此外,eBCMA-Fc 融合蛋白能够抑制BLyS对B细胞肿瘤Daudi细胞的作用．这些研究为下一步设计和筛选BLyS拮抗肽提供了实验基础．     

Syntaxin 7 complexes with mouse Vps10p tail interactor 1b, syntaxin 6, vesicle-associated membrane protein (VAMP)8, and VAMP7 in b16 melanoma cells

Syntaxin 7 is a mammalian target soluble N-ethylmaleimide-sensitive factor attachment protein receptor (SNARE) involved in membrane transport between late endosomes and lysosomes. The aim of the present study was to use immunoaffinity techniques to identify proteins that interact with Syntaxin 7. We reasoned that this would be facilitated by the use of cells producing high levels of Syntaxin 7. Screening of a large number of tissues and cell lines revealed that Syntaxin 7 is expressed at very high levels in B16 melanoma cells. Moreover, the expression of Syntaxin 7 increased in these cells as they underwent melanogenesis. From a large scale Syntaxin 7 immunoprecipitation, we have identified six polypeptides using a combination of electrospray mass spectrometry and immunoblotting. These polypeptides corresponded to Syntaxin 7, Syntaxin 6, mouse Vps10p tail interactor 1b (mVti1b), alpha-synaptosome-associated protein (SNAP), vesicle-associated membrane protein (VAMP)8, VAMP7, and the protein phosphatase 1M regulatory subunit. We also observed partial colocalization between Syntaxin 6 and Syntaxin 7, between Syntaxin 6 and mVti1b, but not between Syntaxin 6 and the early endosomal t-SNARE Syntaxin 13. Based on these and data reported previously, we propose that Syntaxin 7/mVti1b/Syntaxin 6 may form discrete SNARE complexes with either VAMP7 or VAMP8 to regulate fusion events within the late endosomal pathway and that these events may play a critical role in melanogenesis.     

弓形虫表面抗原SAG1截短型片段在大肠杆菌中的可溶性表达及纯化

在大肠杆菌中高效表达及纯化获得可溶性、有反应活性的弓形虫表面抗原SAG1截短型片段(tSAG1),为研制新型的弓形虫病检测试剂奠定基础.构建重组质粒pET-32a-tSAG1并将其转化大肠埃希菌BL21(DE3)表达菌株,在异丙基硫代-β-D半乳糖苷(IPTG)诱导下表达蛋白.SDS-PAGE分析表达产物的表达形式,通过降低培养温度、降低摇床转数和升高LB液体培养基pH,诱导目的蛋白在上清中表达,利用His·Bind(R) Kit试剂盒对目的蛋白进行纯化,Western blot和ELISA检测纯化蛋白的反应原性.在IPTG为1 mmol/L、温度37℃条件下,tSAG1以融合蛋白(His-tSAG1)的形式在大肠埃希菌中高效表达,表达产物以包涵体形式存在.在22℃和LB培养基pH为7.7条件下,融合蛋白主要在上清中表达.Western blot和ELISA分析纯化蛋白能被弓形虫的阳性血清所识别.tSAG1在大肠埃希菌中得到了可溶性蛋白表达,经纯化后能被弓形虫的阳性血清所识别,可用于制备检测弓形虫病的诊断试剂.     

Hantaan Virus Nucleocapsid Protein Binds to Importin α Proteins and Inhibits Tumor Necrosis Factor Alpha-Induced Activation of Nuclear Factor Kappa B

Hantaviruses such as Hantaan virus (HTNV) and Andes virus cause two human diseases, hemorrhagic fever with renal syndrome and hantavirus pulmonary syndrome, respectively. For both, disease pathogenesis is thought to be immunologically mediated and there have been numerous reports of patients with elevated levels of proinflammatory and inflammatory cytokines, including tumor necrosis factor alpha (TNF-α), in their sera. Multiple viruses have developed evasion strategies to circumvent the host cell inflammatory process, with one of the most prevalent being the disruption of nuclear factor kappa B (NF-κB) activation. We hypothesized that hantaviruses might also moderate host inflammation by interfering with this pathway. We report here that the nucleocapsid (N) protein of HTNV was able to inhibit TNF-α-induced activation of NF-κB, as measured by a reporter assay, and the activation of endogenous p65, an NF-κB subunit. Surprisingly, there was no defect in the degradation of the inhibitor of NF-κB (IκB) protein, nor was there any alteration in the level of p65 expression in HTNV N-expressing cells. However, immunofluorescence antibody staining demonstrated that cells expressing HTNV N protein and a green fluorescent protein-p65 fusion had limited p65 nuclear translocation. Furthermore, we were able to detect an interaction between HTNV N protein and importin α, a nuclear import molecule responsible for shuttling NF-κB to the nucleus. Collectively, our data suggest that HTNV N protein can sequester NF-κB in the cytoplasm, thus inhibiting NF-κB activity. These findings, which were obtained using cells transfected with cDNA representing the HTNV N gene, were confirmed using HTNV-infected cells.     

Robust Expression of the Human Neonatal Fc Receptor in a Truncated Soluble Form and as a Full-Length Membrane-Bound Protein in Fusion with eGFP

Studies on the neonatal Fc receptor (FcRn) have revealed a multitude of important functions in mammals, including protection of IgG and serum albumin (SA) from lysosomal degradation. The pharmacokinetic behavior of therapeutic antibodies, IgG-Fc- and SA-containing drugs is therefore influenced by their interaction with FcRn. Pre-clinical development of such drugs is facilitated if their interaction with FcRn can be studied in vitro. For this reason we have developed a robust system for production of the soluble extracellular domain of human FcRn as well as the full-length receptor as fusion to green fluorescent protein, taking advantage of a lentivirus-based gene delivery system where stable over-expressing cells are easily and rapidly generated. Production of the extracellular domain in multiple-layered culture flasks, followed by affinity purification using immobilized IgG, resulted in capture of milligram amounts of soluble receptor per liter cell culture with retained IgG binding. The receptor was further characterized by SDS-PAGE, western blotting, circular dichroism spectroscopy, ELISA, surface plasmon resonance and a temperature stability assay showing a functional and stable protein of high purity. The full-length receptor was found to be successfully over-expressed in a membrane-bound form with retained pH-dependent IgG- and SA-binding.     

Covalent Fixation of Soluble Derivatized Dextrans to Model Proteins in Low-Concentration Medium: Application to Factor IX and Protein C

Factor IX and protein C are zymogens implicated in blood clotting, and an increase in their plasmatic residence time would be of interest for the treatment of the disorders caused by their deficiency. In this context, the conjugation of these proteins to polymers such as modified dextrans could be used to approach the problem. Conjugate formation in concentrated medium ([protein]>50 g/L) is well documented, whereas drastic dilution ([protein] <1 g/L) is quite unfavorable. Before studying the binding of factor IX and protein C to polymers, the coupling of model proteins (human hemoglobin, Hb; human serum albumin, HSA) in low-concentration medium to benzenetetracarboxylate dextran (BTC-dextran) and dialdehyde dextran was investigated. To obtain soluble benzenetetracarboxylate dextran-based conjugates, the conditions of coupling were optimized; the use of sulfo-NHS was necessary to form a conjugate with benzenetetracarboxylate dextran. In fact, the O-acylurea intermediate formed between coupling agent [l-ethyl-3(3-dimethylaminopropyl) carbodiimide, EDC] and BTC-dextran must be stabilized. Concerning dialdehyde dextran, a more oxidized polymer and a higher pH of the buffer of coupling than for highly concentrated solution must be used to obtain a conjugate. Whatever polymer is used, HSA appeared clearly less reactive than Hb, which can be attributed to the better reactivity of N-terminal amino groups in this latter protein and to the marked affinity of benzenetetracarboxylate dextran for it. No soluble conjugate was formed between the same dextran derivatives and factor IX or protein C. Moreover, the activity of both coagulation factors was dramatically decreased by contact with EDC and glutaraldehyde, a small molecule. Thus, bad accessibility of protein amino groups is probably responsible for this lack of reactivity. Nevertheless, it could be shown that carboxylate and amino groups were essential to the activity of factor IX and protein C.     

人表皮生长因子融合蛋白的表达及纯化工艺的优化

探讨了在大肠杆菌中生产小分子泛素样修饰蛋白与人表皮生长因子（SUMO-hEGF）的最佳表达及纯化条件。将重组表达载体pET3c-SUMO-hEGF转化到大肠杆菌BL21(AI)中,以阿拉伯糖为诱导剂,对诱导表达参数进行优化,并进一步通过离子交换层析,Ni-NTA亲和层析及分子筛层析等进行纯化分析。结果表明： SUMO-hEGF在BL21(AI)中的最佳诱导表达温度为37℃,诱导剂阿拉伯糖的最佳浓度为5.0g/L,最佳诱导表达时间为4h,表达量约为20.2%,Western blot 分析证实,纯化后的蛋白是hEGF,为进一步开发hEGF基因工程药物奠定了基础。     

Interactions of NBU1 IntN1 and Orf2x Proteins with Attachment Site DNA

NBU1 is a mobilizable transposon found in Bacteroides spp. Mobilizable transposons require gene products from coresident conjugative transposons for excision and transfer to recipient cells. The integration of NBU1 requires IntN1, which has been identified as a tyrosine recombinase, as well as Bacteroides host factor BHFa. Excision of NBU1 is a more complicated process, involving five element-encoded proteins (IntN1, Orf2, Orf2x, Orf3, and PrmN1) as well as a Bacteroides host factor and a cis-acting DNA sequence. Little has been known about what role the proteins play in excision, although IntN1 and Orf2x have been shown to be the only proteins absolutely required for detectable excision. To determine where IntN1 and Orf2x bind during the excision of NBU1, both proteins were partially purified and tested in DNase I footprinting experiments with the excisive attachment sites attL and attR. The results demonstrate that IntN1 binds to four core-type sites that flank the region of cleavage and strand exchange, as well as six arm-type sites. A unique feature of the system is the location of DR2a and DR2b arm-type sites immediately downstream of the attL core. The DR1a, DR1b, DR3a, and DR3b arm-type sites were shown to be required for in vitro integration of NBU1. In addition, we have identified one Orf2x binding site (O1) on attL as well as a dA+dT-rich upstream element that is required for Orf2x interactions with O1.     

8p12 Stem Cell Myeloproliferative Disorder: the FOP-Fibroblast Growth Factor Receptor 1 Fusion Protein of the t(6;8) Translocation Induces Cell Survival Mediated by Mitogen-Activated Protein Kinase and Phosphatidylinositol 3-Kinase/Akt/mTOR Pathways

The FOP-fibroblast growth factor receptor 1 (FGFR1) fusion protein is expressed as a consequence of a t(6;8) (q27;p12) translocation associated with a stem cell myeloproliferative disorder with lymphoma, myeloid hyperplasia and eosinophilia. In the present report, we show that the fusion of the leucine-rich N-terminal region of FOP to the catalytic domain of FGFR1 results in conversion of murine hematopoietic cell line Ba/F3 to factor-independent cell survival via an antiapoptotic effect. This survival effect is dependent upon the constitutive tyrosine phosphorylation of FOP-FGFR1. Phosphorylation of STAT1 and of STAT3, but not STAT5, is observed in cells expressing FOP-FGFR1. The survival function of FOP-FGFR1 is abrogated by mutation of the phospholipase C gamma binding site. Mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) is also activated in FOP-FGFR1-expressing cells and confers cytokine-independent survival to hematopoietic cells. These results demonstrate that FOP-FGFR1 is capable of protecting cells from apoptosis by using the same effectors as the wild-type FGFR1. Furthermore, we show that FOP-FGFR1 phosphorylates phosphatidylinositol 3 (PI3)-kinase and AKT and that specific inhibitors of PI3-kinase impair its ability to promote cell survival. In addition, FOP-FGFR1-expressing cells show constitutive phosphorylation of the positive regulator of translation p70S6 kinase; this phosphorylation is inhibited by PI3-kinase and mTOR (mammalian target of rapamycin) inhibitors. These results indicate that translation control is important to mediate the cell survival effect induced by FOP-FGFR1. Finally, FOP-FGFR1 protects cells from apoptosis by survival signals including BCL2 overexpression and inactivation of caspase-9 activity. Elucidation of signaling events downstream of FOP-FGFR1 constitutive activation provides insight into the mechanism of leukemogenesis mediated by this oncogenic fusion protein.     

Purification and Characterization of DT 389 GCSF Fusion Protein: A Unique Immunotoxin Against the Human Granulocyte-Colony Stimulating Factor Receptor

Immunotoxin is a recombinant fusion toxin which has been developed to kill cancer cells selectively. DT389GCSF as a new immunotoxin consists of a truncated