Haemoproteus in Wild Turkeys from the Coastal Bend of South Texas*

SYNOPSIS. Blood smears from 133 Rio Grande wild turkeys Meleagridis gallopavo intermedia live-trapped in the Welder Wildlife Refuge in south Texas, were examined for blood parasites. All of the 63 immature turkeys and 63% of the 70 adult turkeys were infected with Haemoproteus meleagridis. The infections were light, half the cases having less than 5 infected cells per 10,000 red blood cells. Infection with H. meleagridis caused significant enlargement of the host RBC. Other parasites specifically searched for but not found were Leucocytozoon, Trypanosoma, Plasmodium and microfilariae.     

Effects of Pinealectomy and Ocular Enucleation on Diurnal Periodicity of Leucocytozoon smithi (Haemosporina) Gametocytes in the Peripheral Blood of Domestic Turkeys1

ABSTRACT. Domestic turkeys naturally infected with Leucocytozoon smithi were blinded by bilateral ocular enucleation, pinealectomized, sham-pinealectomized, pinealectomized plus enucleated, or maintained as controls. Groups of turkeys were acclimated to either light-dark periods of 14L:10D or “darkness” with intermittent periods (10–20 min) of red light at irregular hours approximately every three days as required for maintenance of turkeys. Peripheral gametocyte numbers of L. smithi in all groups were determined every 2 h over a 36 h period. Under 14L: 10D photoperiod, no observable difference in the pattern of gametocyte circadian rhythmicity between pinealectomized, enucleated, pinealectomized plus enucleated, and control turkeys was noted. Although mean parasitemias differed among groups, peak gametocyte numbers occurred between 1000 and 1800 h; how parasitemias occurred between 2000 and 0400 h. However, the phase of gametocyte rhythmicity in pinealectomized plus enucleated turkey hosts did exhibit a lag with reference to other hosts when examined by least squares fits of simple harmonics. Under conditions of “darkness” with intermittent, irregular periods of red light, L. smithi gametocyte numbers of individual turkeys, pinealectomized, sham-pinealectomized, or maintained as controls, exhibited a circadian periodicity though parasite cycles were out of phase with the natural photoperiod to which the turkeys previously had been exposed. A slight drift out of phase of L. smithi gametocyte periodicity occurred among turkeys in the sham-pinealectomized and the control groups while a considerably more prominent drift out of phase was seen among the parasite rhythmicity patterns of the pinealectomized birds. Data indicate that the pineal gland of the turkey did not directly mediate L. smithi gametocyte circadian periodicity, although an indirect involvement in regulating the timing of parasite rhythmicity is suggested.     

Haemosporidian infections in skylarks (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Alauda arvensis</Emphasis>): a comparative PCR-based and microscopy study on the parasite diversity and prevalence in southern Italy and the Netherlands

Changes in agricultural management have been identified as the most probable cause for the decline of Skylark (Alauda arvensis) populations in Europe. However, parasitic infections have not been considered as a possible factor influencing this process. Four hundred and thirty-four Skylarks from the Southern Italy and the Netherlands were screened for haemosporidian parasites (Haemosporida) using the microscopy and polymerase chain reaction (PCR)-based methods. The overall prevalence of infection was 19.5%; it was 41.8% in Italian birds and 8.3% in Dutch birds. The prevalence of Plasmodium spp. was 34.1% and 6.5% in Skylarks from Italy and Netherlands, respectively. Approximately 15% of all recorded haemosporidian infections were simultaneous infections both in Italian and Dutch populations. Six different mitochondrial cytochrome b (cyt b) lineages of Plasmodium spp. and three lineages of Haemoproteus tartakovskyi were found. The lineage SGS1 of Plasmodium relictum was the most prevalent at both study sites; it was recorded in 24.7% of birds in Italy and 5.5% in the Netherlands. The lineages SYAT05 of Plasmodium vaughani and GRW11 of P. relictum were also identified with a prevalence of <2% at both study sites. Two Plasmodium spp. lineages (SW2 and DELURB4) and three H. tartakovskyi lineages have been found only in Skylarks from Italy. Mitochondrial cyt b lineages SYAT05 are suggested for molecular identification of P. vaughani, a cosmopolitan malaria parasite of birds. This study reports the greatest overall prevalence of malaria infection in Skylarks during the last 100 years and shows that both Plasmodium and Haemoproteus spp. haemosporidian infections are expanding in Skylarks so it might contribute to a decrease of these bird populations in Europe.     

Pre-Erythrocytic Development and Associated Host Responses to Haemoproteus meleagridis (Haemosporina: Haemoproteidae) in Experimentally Infected Domestic Turkeys12

ABSTRACT. Two generations of pre-erythrocytic schizogony occurred in skeletal and cardiac muscle of domestic turkeys infected with sporozoites of Haemoproteus meleagridis. First generation schizonts reached maturity approximately five days post-inoculation (DPI) and developed in capillary endothelial cells and myofibroblasts. The schizonts ranged from 12 to 20 μm in diameter and produced long (5–6 μm), slender merozoites. Early second generation schizonts were first detected in capillary endothelial cells between 5 and 8 DPI. They were cylindrical and ranged in size from 5 to 8 μm in diameter and up to 28 μm in length. Second generation schizonts which reached maturity by 17 DPI were surrounded by a thick, hyaline wall and were packed with numerous spherical merozoites less than 1 μm in diameter. Mature megaloschizonts were fusiform, ranged from 30 to 113 μm in diameter, and extended as much as 465 μm along the long axis of muscle fibers. Merozoites developed as buds from cytomeres that formed between 8 and 14 DPI. Infected turkeys developed a moderate to severe myositis within 5 DPI and were lame in one or both legs. The myositis was associated with the necrosis of scattered groups of muscle fibers. Muscle fibers surrounding mature megaloschizonts were swollen and hyaline. Megaloschizonts were surrounded occasionally by fibroblasts and infiltrates of mononuclear cells. The morphology and site of development of mature megaloschizonts of Haemoproteus meleagridis are contrasted with those of other avian haemosporidians.     

Parasitemia in PCR‐detected Plasmodium and Haemoproteus infections in birds

Most comparative studies of avian blood parasites based on visual inspection of smears have reported Haemoproteus infections to be more prevalent than Plasmodium infections in both tropical and temperate locations. Recently, molecular techniques have increased our ability to detect infections often missed on blood smears. Here we quantify the bias in prevalence resulting from unrecognized infections by examining blood smears of infected passerine birds from the West Indies (312 individuals) and the Ozark Mountains of southern Missouri (134 individuals) for which we could identify parasites based on cytochrome b sequences. In the West Indian sample, 63 of 179 Haemoproteus infections (35%) and 121 of 133 Plasmodium infections (91%) were not detected among ca. 2,800 red blood cells examined per smear. In the Missouri sample, 19 of 77 Haemoproteus infections (25%) and 31 of 57 Plasmodium infections (54%) were not detected among ca. 10,000 red blood cells examined. Clearly, visual inspection of blood smears at this level of effort fails to recognize many malaria parasite infections ascertained by PCR screening, and this bias for Plasmodium parasites exceeds that for Haemoproteus parasites. The lower prevalence of Plasmodium compared to Haemoproteus reported in comparative studies based on blood smears likely reflects differences in detection rather than infection rates. Estimates obtained from visual inspection of blood smears would appear to be more indicative of parasite virulence and how well host individuals control infections than of the prevalence of infections in host populations.     

Occurrence and seasonal transmission of hematozoa in wild turkeys

The occurrence and seasonal patterns of transmission of the blood protozoa of wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris) were studied at Tallahala Wildlife Management Area (TWMA) (Jasper County, Mississippi, USA). Blood smears obtained from wild turkeys in winter, spring and summer, and from sentinel domestic turkeys throughout the year were examined for Haemoproteus meleagridis and Leucocytozoon smithi. Whole blood from wild turkeys captured in summer was subinoculated into malaria-free domestic turkey poults and recipient birds were examined for Plasmodium spp. The prevalence of H. meleagridis and L. smithi were not different (P greater than 0.05) between adults and juveniles or between male and female turkeys in any season. Leucocytozoon smithi was not detected in poults in summer or in juveniles examined in winter. Sentinel studies and information from wild birds revealed that transmission of H. meleagridis and L. smithi did not overlap. Haemoproteus meleagridis was transmitted from May through November, while L. smithi was transmitted only from January through April. The onset of transmission of H. meleagridis coincided with peak hatching (mid-May) and brood-rearing (May-November) of turkey poults. Plasmodium spp. were not found in turkeys from TWMA (n = 27) nor in birds from three widely separated counties (n = 28) in Mississippi.     

The occurrence of haemosporidian parasites in the Fennoscandian bluethroat ( Luscinia svecica) population

A total of 86 adult bluethroats (Luscinia svecica) from nine different localities, covering the full length of the Fennoscandian mountain range, were screened for blood parasites of the three genera Haemoproteus, Plasmodium and Leucocytozoon using a recently developed polymerase chain reaction method. The overall occurrence of infection was 59.3%. Prevalence of Leucocytozoon spp. (47.7%), Plasmodium spp. (23.3%) and Haemoproteus spp. (1.2%) was detected. Of the infected birds, 15.1% carried mixed infections. Five different mitochondrial DNA-lineages of Leucocytozoon spp., eight lineages of Plasmodium spp. and one lineage of Haemoproteus spp. were found. Due to large sequence divergence these corresponded to at least five different species, but with the possibility of all 14 being independent evolutionary units with the potential of evolving different effects on the host. Of the lineages of Leucocytozoon spp., the most common was found throughout the range. The occurrence of the second most common lineage of Leucocytozoon spp. showed significant variation in prevalence between sites. The data also showed molecular evidence of one lineage of Leucocytozoon sp. existing in more than one species of avian host, thus challenging the use of host taxon as a taxonomic character when distinguishing between different species leucocytozoids.Communicated by F. Bairlein     

Blood and Tissue Protozoa of the English Sparrow (Passer domesticus domesticus) in Galveston,Texas*

SYNOPSIS. The 42% incidence of Plasmodium in blood films of English sparrows reported here is the highest on record for surveys of blood parasites of birds in the United States. The only Plasmodium species identified in the sparrows was P. relictum. Adult birds were almost universally infected and tended to experience the highest degree of parasitemia in the spring months, while young birds had a higher blood positivity in the summer months. The lowest incidence of Plasmodium positive blood films occurred in fall and winter in the Galveston area. Overwintering birds had a decrease in parasitemia corresponding to reported minimal gonadal activity in sparrows. The 20% incidence of Lankesterella (avian Toxoplasma) in the blood of these sparrows was also higher than has been reported in other blood film surveys in this country. Incidence of this parasite in blood films was highest in the summer months, corresponding with highest average temperature for the year. Lankesterella could be found in 95% of sparrows whose tissues were examined after autopsy. Ducks and pigeons in the immediate vicinity of the survey sparrows had neither Plasmodium nor Lankesterella in blood films. Resident wild birds from adjacent rural areas, including redwinged blackbirds, boat-tailed grackles, laughing gulls and meadowlarks, had fewer Plasmodium and Lankesterella than the sparrows. A few Lankesterella were found in the liver or spleen of young redwinged blackbirds, and only 2 of 79 wild birds had the organisms in their heart blood. Plasmodium was found only in meadowlarks and included P. hexamerium and elongatum as well as relictum.     

Isolation and Characterization of Mycoplasma and Acholeplasma from Apparently Healthy and Diseased (Infectious Sinusitis) Turkeys

Investigation of 136 turkeys (24 manifesting infra-orbital sinusitis, 112 apparently healthy) resulted in isolation of 79 strains of Mycoplasma and 4 of Acholeplasma. By the disc growth inhibition test with 16 reference antisera of avian serogroups, 55 strains were identified serologically and 28 remained unidentified. Thirteen strains of Mycoplasma gallisepticum, 1 of M. meleagridis, and 2 of Acholeplasma laidlawii were isolated from turkey sinusitis whereas serogroups C (2), D (19), F (8), M. meleagridis (4), M. anatis (4), A. laidlawii (2), and 28 unidentified strains were isolated from apparently healthy turkeys. Three patterns were recognized on the basis of glucose, maltose, and sucrose, fermentation. The most frequent, pattern I, included 13 M. gallisepticum strains whereas 5 M. meleagridis strains belonged to fermentation pattern III. Isolates were also studied for reduction of tetrazolium, methylene blue, potassium tellurite, resistance to methylene blue and sodium taurocholate, and production of arginine deiminase and “film and spots.” Inoculation of selected isolates into developing chick embryos revealed that 2 A. laidlawii strains were nonpathogenic and 13 M. gallisepticum, 1 serogroup D and 2 serogroup F strains were pathogenic, causing 50–100% mortality. In vitro antibiotic disc sensitivity tests indicated that rovamycin (solubilized spiramycin) may be recommended for turkey mycoplasmosis. Isolation of 2 A. laidlawii strains from turkey sinusitis and 4 M. anatis strains from apparently healthy turkeys appears interesting.     

Morphologic, Host Specificity, and Molecular Characterization of a Hungarian Cryptosporidium meleagridis Isolate

This study was undertaken in order to characterize Cryptosporidium meleagridis isolated from a turkey in Hungary and to compare the morphologies, host specificities, organ locations, and small-subunit RNA (SSU rRNA) gene sequences of this organism and other Cryptosporidium species. The phenotypic differences between C. meleagridis and Cryptosporidium parvum Hungarian calf isolate (zoonotic genotype) oocysts were small, although they were statistically significant. Oocysts of C. meleagridis were successfully passaged in turkeys and were transmitted from turkeys to immunosuppressed mice and from mice to chickens. The location of C. meleagridis was the small intestine, like the location of C. parvum. A comparison of sequence data for the variable region of the SSU rRNA gene of C. meleagridis isolated from turkeys with other Cryptosporidium sequence data in the GenBank database revealed that the Hungarian C. meleagridis sequence is identical to a C. meleagridis sequence recently described for a North Carolina isolate. Thus, C. meleagridis is a distinct species that occurs worldwide and has a broad host range, like the C. parvum zoonotic strain (also called the calf or bovine strain) and Cryptosporidium felis. Because birds are susceptible to C. meleagridis and to some zoonotic strains of C. parvum, these animals may play an active role in contamination of surface waters not only with Cryptosporidium baileyi but also with C. parvum-like parasites.     

The first report of nine species of haemosporidian parasites (Haemosporida: <Emphasis Type="Italic">Haemoproteus,Plasmodium</Emphasis> and <Emphasis Type="Italic">Leucocytozoon</Emphasis>) in wild birds from Slovakia

During 2009 and 2010 samples from 251 wild birds (37 species) from nine sites of Slovakia were collected. Blood samples were tested for Plasmodium, Haemoproteus, and Leucocytozoon spp. parasites using both PCR-based and microscopy techniques. The overall prevalence of infection was 56.6%, while prevalence of Haemoproteus a Plasmodium spp. (were evaluated separately from Leucocytozoon) was 46.6% and the prevalence of Leucocytozoon spp. was 33.9%. After microscopic examination of stained blood smears the identification of haemoproteids was performed. There were 14 species of three genera identified, i.e., Haemoproteus parabelopolskyi, H. belopolskyi, H. magnus, H. fallisi, H. fringillae, H. balmorali, H. dolniki, H. tartakovskyi, H. lanii, Leucocytozoon majoris, L. dubreuili, Plasmodium vaughani, P. relictum, P. circumflexum. Except for H. fringillae, H. balmorali, H. belopolskyi, L. majoris and L. dubreuili, the mentioned species of parasites were recorded for the first time in Slovakia.     

Haemosporidian infection in passerine birds from Lower Saxony

Blood samples from 94 coal tits (Parus ater), 56 great tits (Parus major) and 219 pied flycatchers (Ficedula hypoleuca), caught between 1993 and 2002 at two localities in Lower Saxony, Germany, were examined for haemosporidian infection by parasite-specific polymerase chain reaction (PCR). A simple PCR targeting the 18 SSU rRNA gene of the parasites was used for rapid screening of the samples and generated a total infection prevalence of 20.6% (76/369): 6.8% (n = 15) of the pied flycatchers, 19.1% (n = 18) of the coal tits and 76.8% (n = 43) of the great tits were infected. The positive specimens were re-examined by a cytochrome b gene-directed nested PCR producing significantly longer DNA fragments (approx. 520 bp) that were sequenced and analysed against GenBank-deposited nucleotide sequences. In various numbers (once to 30 times), a total of 13 parasitic DNA sequences differing from 2.9 to 8.5% (13–45 nucleotides) were demonstrated in the three bird species. Due to similarities of 98–100% with GenBank entries, 11 sequences could be assigned to Plasmodium sp. and two to the genus Haemoproteus. In summary, 57 birds were infected with Plasmodium and 19 with Haemoproteus, corresponding to 15.4 and 5.1% of all birds examined, and to 75 and 25% of all birds tested positive. As the only defined species, Haemoproteus majoris was identified in 17 great tits.     

Efficacy of a herbal product against Histomonas meleagridis after experimental infection of turkey poults

Abstract

Histomoniasis (infectious enterohepatitis, blackhead) is caused by the protozoan parasite Histomonas meleagridis (H. meleagridis). After the ban of all prophylactic and therapeutic drugs in the European Union, histomoniasis is increasingly responsible for considerable economic problems to the poultry industry. The aim of this study was to investigate the effect of a herbal product with extracts from cinnamon, garlic, lemon, and rosemary on H. meleagridis in turkey poults in vivo. For this purpose, 60 two-week-old poults were divided into three groups. Group 1 received the herbal product in the feed six days before infection and in water three days before infection, then in feed and drinking water until the end of the experiment. Groups 2 and 3 were left untreated. At week 3 of age, Groups 1 and 2 were infected intracloacally with H. meleagridis. Three weeks after infection the surviving birds were euthanized and examined for pathological lesions. Mortality was 20% in Group 1 and 50% in Group 2. There were no deaths in Group 3. DNA of histomonads was detected in all examined caeca and livers of the dead birds, but was not detected in any examined organ of the surviving birds of all groups. There was no noticeable difference in the lesion scores of the dead birds between the groups. The surviving birds of all groups did not show lesions post mortem. Since all effective prophylactic and therapeutic drugs against histomoniasis were banned in the EU, under given conditions the investigated herbal product seems to be an effective alternative for the reduction of mortality in turkeys caused by histomoniasis.     

Influence of land use and host species on parasite richness,prevalence and co-infection patterns

Tropical forests are experiencing increasing impacts from a multitude of anthropogenic activities such as logging and conversion to agricultural use. These perturbations are expected to have strong impacts on ecological interactions and on the transmission dynamics of infectious diseases. To date, no clear picture of the effects of deforestation on vector-borne disease transmission has emerged. This is associated with the challenge of studying complex systems where many vertebrate hosts and vectors co-exist. To overcome this problem, we focused on an innately simplified system – a small oceanic island (São Tomé, Gulf of Guinea). We analyzed the impacts of human land-use on host-parasite interactions by sampling the bird community (1735 samples from 30 species) in natural and anthropogenic land use at different elevations, and screened individuals for haemosporidian parasites from three genera (Plasmodium, Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon). Overall, Plasmodium had the highest richness but the lowest prevalence, while Leucocytozoon diversity was the lowest despite having the highest prevalence. Interestingly, co-infections (i.e. intra-host diversity) involved primarily Leucocytozoon lineages (95%). We also found marked differences between bird species and habitats. Some bird species showed low prevalence but harbored high diversity of parasites, while others showed high prevalence but were infected with fewer lineages. These infection dynamics are most likely driven by host specificity of parasites and intrinsic characteristics of hosts. In addition, Plasmodium was more abundant in disturbed habitats and at lower elevations, while Leucocytozoon was more prevalent in forest areas and at higher elevations. These results likely reflect the ecological requirements of their vectors: mosquitoes and black flies, respectively.     

Avian Plasmodium lineages found in spot surveys of mosquitoes from 2007 to 2010 at Sakata wetland,Japan: do dominant lineages persist for multiple years?

The ecology and geographical distribution of disease vectors are major determinants of spatial and temporal variations in the transmission dynamics of vector‐borne pathogens. However, there are limited studies on the ecology of vectors that contribute to the natural transmission of most vector‐borne pathogens. Avian Plasmodium parasites are multihost mosquito‐borne pathogens transmitted by multiple mosquito species, which might regulate the diversity and persistence of these parasites. From 2007 to 2010, we conducted entomological surveys at Sakata wetland in central Japan, to investigate temporal variation in mosquito occurrence and prevalence of avian Plasmodium lineages in the mosquito populations. A polymerase chain reaction (PCR)‐based method was used to detect Plasmodium parasites and identify the blood sources of mosquitoes. Culex inatomii and C. pipiens pallens represented 60.0% and 34.8% of 11 mosquito species collected, respectively. Our results showed that the two dominant mosquito species most likely serve as principal vectors of avian Plasmodium parasites during June, which coincides with the breeding season of bird species nesting in the wetland reed beds. Fourteen animal species were identified as blood sources of mosquitoes, with the oriental reed warbler (Acrocephalus orientalis) being the commonest blood source. Although there was significant temporal variation in the occurrence of mosquitoes and prevalence of Plasmodium lineages in the mosquitoes, the dominant Plasmodium lineages shared by the two dominant mosquito species were consistently found at the same time during transmission seasons. Because vector competence cannot be confirmed solely by PCR approaches, experimental demonstration is required to provide definitive evidence of transmission suggested in this study.     

Blood parasites of blue grouse: variation in prevalence and patterns of interspecific association

Blood parasites of blue grouse (Dendragapus obscurus) were sampled and the factors responsible for variation in prevalence of blood parasites, and patterns of association among parasite species, were investigated. Five genera of haematozoa were surveyed including four protozoans (Haemoproteus, Leucocytozoon, Plasmodium, and Trypanosoma) and a nematode (Splendidofilaria). Prevalence of blood parasites varied significantly between years; sexes differed in number of parasite species in one of two years. Both positive and negative overall associations among all parasites were found when variance-ratio tests were used indicating that blood parasites often were not independent of one another. In general, Leucocytozoon and Trypanosoma often co-occurred; the strongest associations between these two parasites appeared in samples of hosts most heavily infected by other parasites. Negative associations between parasite species always involved Haemoproteus. Associations between pairs of species did not account wholly for overall patterns of associations within the parasite assemblage. Studies of associations within blood parasite assemblages are important for understanding the ecology of haemotropic infections and for clucidating the need for multi-parasite models of parasite-host interactions.     

Isolation of Histomonas meleagridis from Embryonated Eggs of Heterakis gallinarum*

SYNOPSIS. Histomonas meleagridis was isolated from eggs of Heterakis gallinarum by culturing artificially hatched eggs in a modified DeVolt's alkaline serum medium. The presence of the protozoon in the cultures was established by microscopic examination and confirmed by producing histomonosis in turkeys by intracecal inoculation with quantities of the cultures.     

Higher infection probability of haemosporidian parasites in Blue-black Grassquits (Volatinia jacarina) inhabiting native vegetation across Brazil

Human induced changes on landscape can alter the biotic and abiotic factors that influence the transmission of vector-borne parasites. To examine how infection rates of vector-transmitted parasites respond to changes on natural landscapes, we captured 330 Blue-black Grassquits (Volatinia jacarina) in Brazilian biomes and assessed the prevalence and diversity of avian haemosporidian parasites (Plasmodium and Haemoproteus) across avian host populations inhabiting environment under different disturbance and climatic conditions. Overall prevalence in Blue-black Grassquits was low (11%) and infection rates exhibited considerable spatial variation, ranging from zero to 39%. Based on genetic divergence of cytochrome b gene, we found two lineages of Haemoproteus (Parahaemoproteus) and 10 of Plasmodium. We showed that Blue-black Grassquit populations inhabiting sites with higher proportion of native vegetation cover were more infected across Brazil. Other landscape metrics (number of water bodies and distance to urban areas) and climatic condition (temperature and precipitation) known to influence vector activity and promote avian malaria transmission did not explain infection probability in Blue-black Grassquit populations. Moreover, breeding season did not explain prevalence across avian host populations. Our findings suggest that avian haemosporidian prevalence and diversity in Blue-black Grassquit populations are determined by recent anthropogenic changes in vegetation cover that may alter microclimate, thus influencing vector activity and parasite transmission.     

Paucity of hematozoa in Colombian birds

Sixty-four birds of 43 species were caught at six localities in Colombia during the dry season in March 1998 and investigated for hematozoa by microscopic examination of stained blood films. Haemoproteus coatneyi, Plasmodium vaughani, Leucocytozoon sp., and microfilariae were identified. The overall prevalence of infection was 8%. Prevalences of infection for Haemoproteus spp., Plasmodium spp., Leucocytozoon spp., and microfilariae were 3%, 2%, 2%, and 3%, respectively. All hemosporidian infections encountered were of low intensity (< 1% of infected erythrocytes). The low prevalences and intensities of hemosporidian parasites in this study are in accord with other records from the Neotropics.     

Blood and gastrointestinal parasites of eastern wild turkeys from Kentucky and Tennessee

Fifty-nine gastrointestinal tracts and 52 blood samples were collected from eastern wild turkeys (Meleagris gallopavo silvestris Vieillot) during the spring turkey hunts of 1979-1980 from two areas in western Kentucky and Tennessee. Eight species of parasites were recovered, and included (combined prevalence): Haemoproteus meleagridis Levine, 1961 (25%), Hymenolepis carioca (Magalhaes, 1898) (44%), Metroliasthes lucida Ransom, 1900 (25%), Raillietina georgiensis (Reid and Nugara, 1961) (15%), R. williamsi Fuhrmann, 1932 (64%), Ascaridia dissimilis Perez Vigueras, 1931 (83%), Capillaria caudinflata (Molin, 1858) (2%), and Heterakis gallinarum (Schrank, 1788) (27%). A significant difference existed between the intensities of A. dissimilis from the two states. Twenty-two subinoculations of collected blood were made in 1979, but no Plasmodium infections were recovered. Helminths of wild turkeys from 11 southeastern states were compared using similarity and diversity indices. High similarities were observed in helminth populations of two groups of states: 1) Alabama, Mississippi, Arkansas, Virginia, and Tennessee; and 2) Tennessee, Kentucky, and Illinois. Simpson's diversity index indicated helminth populations of wild turkeys in Florida were the most diverse (0.10), while those in Louisiana turkeys were the least diverse (0.33).