SYMBIOTIC ORIGIN OF A NOVEL ACTIN GENE IN THE CRYPTOPHYTE,PYRENOMONAS HELGOLANDII

Cryptophytes are photosynthetic protists that have acquired their plastids through the secondary symbiotic uptake of a red alga. A remarkable feature of cryptophytes is that they maintain a reduced form of the red algal nucleus, the nucleomorph, between the second and third plastid membranes (periplastidial compartment, PC). The nucleomorph is thought to be a transition state in the evolution of secondary plastids with this genome ultimately being lost (e.g., as in heterokonts, haptophytes, euglenophytes) when photosynthesis comes under full control of the “host” nucleus. For this to happen, all genes for plastid function must be transferred from the nucleomorph to the nucleus. In this regard, it is generally assumed that nucleomorph genes with functions unrelated to plastid or PC maintenance are lost. Surprisingly, we show here the existence of a novel type of actin gene in the host nucleus of the cryptophyte, Pyrenomonas helgolandii, that has originated from the nucleomorph genome of the symbiont. Our results demonstrate for the first time that secondary symbionts can contribute genes to the host lineage that are unrelated to plastid function. These genes are akin to the products of gene duplication and provide a source of evolutionary novelty that could significantly increase the genetic diversity of the host lineage. We postulate that this may be a common phenomenon in algae containing secondary plastids that has yet to be fully appreciated due to a dearth of evolutionary studies of nuclear genes in these taxa.     

Symbiotic origin of a novel actin gene in the cryptophyte Pyrenomonas helgolandii

Cryptophytes are photosynthetic protists that have acquired their plastids through the secondary symbiotic uptake of a red alga. A remarkable feature of cryptophytes is that they maintain a reduced form of the red algal nucleus, the nucleomorph, between the second and third plastid membranes (periplastidial compartment; PC). The nucleomorph is thought to be a transition state in the evolution of secondary plastids, with this genome ultimately being lost when photosynthesis comes under full control of the "host" nucleus (e.g., as in heterokonts, haptophytes, and euglenophytes). Genes presently found in the nucleomorph seem to be restricted to those involved in its own maintenance and to that of the plastid; other genes were lost as the endosymbiont was progressively reduced to its present state. Surprisingly, we found that the cryptophyte Pyrenomonas helgolandii possesses a novel type of actin gene that originated from the nucleomorph genome of the symbiont. Our results demonstrate for the first time that secondary symbionts can contribute genes to the host lineage which are unrelated to plastid function. These genes are akin to the products of gene duplication or lateral transfer and provide a source of evolutionary novelty that can significantly increase the genetic diversity of the host lineage. We postulate that this may be a common phenomenon in algae containing secondary plastids that has yet to be fully appreciated due to a dearth of evolutionary studies of nuclear genes in these taxa.     

Genome-based reconstruction of the protein import machinery in the secondary plastid of a chlorarachniophyte alga

Most plastid proteins are encoded by their nuclear genomes and need to be targeted across multiple envelope membranes. In vascular plants, the translocons at the outer and inner envelope membranes of chloroplasts (TOC and TIC, respectively) facilitate transport across the two plastid membranes. In contrast, several algal groups harbor more complex plastids, the so-called secondary plastids, which are surrounded by three or four membranes, but the plastid protein import machinery (in particular, how proteins cross the membrane corresponding to the secondary endosymbiont plasma membrane) remains unexplored in many of these algae. To reconstruct the putative protein import machinery of a secondary plastid, we used the chlorarachniophyte alga Bigelowiella natans, whose plastid is bounded by four membranes and still possesses a relict nucleus of a green algal endosymbiont (the nucleomorph) in the intermembrane space. We identified nine homologs of plant-like TOC/TIC components in the recently sequenced B. natans nuclear genome, adding to the two that remain in the nucleomorph genome (B. natans TOC75 [BnTOC75] and BnTIC20). All of these proteins were predicted to be localized to the plastid and might function in the inner two membranes. We also show that the homologs of a protein, Der1, that is known to mediate transport across the second membrane in the several lineages with secondary plastids of red algal origin is not associated with plastid protein targeting in B. natans. How plastid proteins cross this membrane remains a mystery, but it is clear that the protein transport machinery of chlorarachniophyte plastids differs from that of red algal secondary plastids.     

Nucleomorph genomes: structure, function, origin and evolution

The cryptomonads and chlorarachniophytes are two unicellular algal lineages with complex cellular structures and fascinating evolutionary histories. Both groups acquired their photosynthetic abilities through the assimilation of eukaryotic endosymbionts. As a result, they possess two distinct cytosolic compartments and four genomes--two nuclear genomes, an endosymbiont-derived plastid genome and a mitochondrial genome derived from the host cell. Like mitochondrial and plastid genomes, the genome of the endosymbiont nucleus, or 'nucleomorph', of cryptomonad and chlorarachniophyte cells has been greatly reduced through the combined effects of gene loss and intracellular gene transfer. This article focuses on the structure, function, origin and evolution of cryptomonad and chlorarachniophyte nucleomorph genomes in light of recent comparisons of genome sequence data from both groups. It is now possible to speculate on the reasons that nucleomorphs persist in cryptomonads and chlorarachniophytes but have been lost in all other algae with plastids of secondary endosymbiotic origin.     

Multiple gene phylogenies support the monophyly of cryptomonad and haptophyte host lineages

Cryptomonad algae acquired their plastids by the secondary endosymbiotic uptake of a eukaryotic red alga. Several other algal lineages acquired plastids through such an event [1], but cryptomonads are distinguished by the retention of a relic red algal nucleus, the nucleomorph [2]. The nucleomorph (and its absence in other lineages) can reveal a great deal about the process and history of endosymbiosis, but only if we know the relationship between cryptomonads and other algae, and this has been controversial. Several recent analyses have suggested a relationship between plastids of cryptomonads and some or all other red alga-containing lineages [3-6], but we must also know whether host nuclear genes mirror this relationship to determine the number of endosymbiotic events, and this has not been demonstrated. We have carried out an expressed sequence tag (EST) survey of the cryptomonad Guillardia theta. Phylogenetic analyses of 102 orthologous nucleus-encoded proteins (18,425 amino acid alignment positions) show a robust sister-group relationship between cryptomonads and the haptophyte algae, which also have a red secondary plastid. This relationship demonstrates that loss of nucleomorphs must have taken place in haptophytes independently of any other red alga-containing lineages and that the ancestor of both already contained a red algal endosymbiont.     

Hypothesis: Gene‐rich plastid genomes in red algae may be an outcome of nuclear genome reduction

Red algae (Rhodophyta) putatively diverged from the eukaryote tree of life >1.2 billion years ago and are the source of plastids in the ecologically important diatoms, haptophytes, and dinoflagellates. In general, red algae contain the largest plastid gene inventory among all such organelles derived from primary, secondary, or additional rounds of endosymbiosis. In contrast, their nuclear gene inventory is reduced when compared to their putative sister lineage, the Viridiplantae, and other photosynthetic lineages. The latter is thought to have resulted from a phase of genome reduction that occurred in the stem lineage of Rhodophyta. A recent comparative analysis of a taxonomically broad collection of red algal and Viridiplantae plastid genomes demonstrates that the red algal ancestor encoded ~1.5× more plastid genes than Viridiplantae. This difference is primarily explained by more extensive endosymbiotic gene transfer (EGT) in the stem lineage of Viridiplantae, when compared to red algae. We postulate that limited EGT in Rhodophytes resulted from the countervailing force of ancient, and likely recurrent, nuclear genome reduction. In other words, the propensity for nuclear gene loss led to the retention of red algal plastid genes that would otherwise have undergone intracellular gene transfer to the nucleus. This hypothesis recognizes the primacy of nuclear genome evolution over that of plastids, which have no inherent control of their gene inventory and can change dramatically (e.g., secondarily non‐photosynthetic eukaryotes, dinoflagellates) in response to selection acting on the host lineage.     

The secondary endosymbiont of the cryptomonad Guillardia theta contains alpha-, beta-, and gamma-tubulin genes.

Cryptomonads have acquired photosynthesis through secondary endosymbiosis: they have engulfed and retained a photosynthetic eukaryote. The remnants of this autotrophic symbiont are severely reduced, but a small volume of cytoplasm surrounding the plastid persists, along with a residual nucleus (the nucleomorph) that encodes only a few hundred genes. We characterized tubulin genes from the cryptomonad Guillardia theta. Despite the apparent absence of microtubules in the endosymbiont, we recovered genes encoding alpha-, beta-, and gamma-tubulins from the nucleomorph genome of G. theta. The presence of tubulin genes in the nucleomorph indicates that some component of the cytoskeleton is still present in the cryptomonad symbiont despite the fact that very little cytoplasm remains, no mitosis is known in the nucleomorph, and microtubules have never been observed anywhere in the symbiont. Phylogenetic analyses with nucleomorph alpha- and beta-tubulins support the origin of the cryptomonad nucleomorph from a red alga. We also characterized alpha and beta-tubulins from the host nucleus of G. theta and compared these with tubulins we isolated from two flagellates, Goniomonas truncata and Cyanophora paradoxa, previously proposed to be related to the cryptomonad host. Phylogenetic analyses support a relationship between the cryptomonad host and Goniomonas but do not support any relationship between cryptomonads and Cyanophora.     

Phylogeny of Dinoflagellate Plastid Genes Recently Transferred to the Nucleus Supports a Common Ancestry with Red Algal Plastid Genes

It is generally accepted that peridinin-containing dinoflagellate plastids are derived from red alga, but whether they are secondary plastids equivalent to plastids of stramenopiles, haptophytes, or cryptophytes, or are tertiary plastids derived from one of the other secondary plastids, has not yet been completely resolved. As secondary plastids, plastid gene phylogeny should mirror that of nuclear genes, while incongruence in the two phylogenies should be anticipated if their origin was as tertiary plastids. We have analyzed the phylogeny of plastid-encoded genes from Lingulodinium as well as that of nuclear-encoded dinoflagellate homologues of plastid-encoded genes conserved in all other plastid genome sequences. Our analyses place the dinoflagellate, stramenopile, haptophyte, and cryptophyte plastids firmly in the red algal lineage, and in particular, the close relationship between stramenopile plastid genes and their dinoflagellate nuclear-encoded homologues is consistent with the hypothesis that red algal-type plastids have arisen only once in evolution.     

Nucleomorph and plastid genome sequences of the chlorarachniophyte Lotharella oceanica: convergent reductive evolution and frequent recombination in nucleomorph-bearing algae

Background

Nucleomorphs are residual nuclei derived from eukaryotic endosymbionts in chlorarachniophyte and cryptophyte algae. The endosymbionts that gave rise to nucleomorphs and plastids in these two algal groups were green and red algae, respectively. Despite their independent origin, the chlorarachniophyte and cryptophyte nucleomorph genomes share similar genomic features such as extreme size reduction and a three-chromosome architecture. This suggests that similar reductive evolutionary forces have acted to shape the nucleomorph genomes in the two groups. Thus far, however, only a single chlorarachniophyte nucleomorph and plastid genome has been sequenced, making broad evolutionary inferences within the chlorarachniophytes and between chlorarachniophytes and cryptophytes difficult. We have sequenced the nucleomorph and plastid genomes of the chlorarachniophyte Lotharella oceanica in order to gain insight into nucleomorph and plastid genome diversity and evolution.

Results

The L. oceanica nucleomorph genome was found to consist of three linear chromosomes totaling ~610 kilobase pairs (kbp), much larger than the 373 kbp nucleomorph genome of the model chlorarachniophyte Bigelowiella natans. The L. oceanica plastid genome is 71 kbp in size, similar to that of B. natans. Unexpectedly long (~35 kbp) sub-telomeric repeat regions were identified in the L. oceanica nucleomorph genome; internal multi-copy regions were also detected. Gene content analyses revealed that nucleomorph house-keeping genes and spliceosomal intron positions are well conserved between the L. oceanica and B. natans nucleomorph genomes. More broadly, gene retention patterns were found to be similar between nucleomorph genomes in chlorarachniophytes and cryptophytes. Chlorarachniophyte plastid genomes showed near identical protein coding gene complements as well as a high level of synteny.

Conclusions

We have provided insight into the process of nucleomorph genome evolution by elucidating the fine-scale dynamics of sub-telomeric repeat regions. Homologous recombination at the chromosome ends appears to be frequent, serving to expand and contract nucleomorph genome size. The main factor influencing nucleomorph genome size variation between different chlorarachniophyte species appears to be expansion-contraction of these telomere-associated repeats rather than changes in the number of unique protein coding genes. The dynamic nature of chlorarachniophyte nucleomorph genomes lies in stark contrast to their plastid genomes, which appear to be highly stable in terms of gene content and synteny.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/1471-2164-15-374) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

The chlorarachniophyte nucleomorph is supplemented with host cell nucleus-encoded histones

In chlorarachniophytes, algae originating from secondary endosymbiosis, the complex plastids retained a nucleomorph, the vestigial nucleus of the green algal endosymbiont. The nucleomorph of Bigelowiella natans encodes several plastid-targeted proteins and hundreds of housekeeping proteins. However, many fundamental genes for the maintainance of this subcompartment are missing. In this issue of Molecular Microbiology, Hirakawa et al. (2011) demonstrate nuclear histone genes of dual evolutionary origin in B. natans and convincingly show the targeting of the corresponding proteins to nucleus and nucleomorph respectively. One of the ways through which the nuclear genome exerts control upon its endosymbiotic junior partner is revealed. Insights into the nature of bipartite targeting sequences directing the respective proteins into the periplastidal space (where the nucleomorph resides) are gained. Further, cell cycle-dependent, differential regulation is shown for both nuclear and nucleomorph histone genes.     

The ghost plastid of Choreocolax polysiphoniae

Parasitism has evolved innumerable times among eukaryotes. Red algal parasites alone have independently evolved over 100 times. The accepted evolutionary paradigm proposes that red algal parasites arise by first infecting a close relative and over time diversifying and infecting more distantly related species. This provides a natural evolutionary gradient of relationships between hosts and parasites that share a photosynthetic common ancestor. Upon infection, the parasite deposits its organelles into the host cell and takes over, spreading through cell‐cell connections. Microscopy and molecular studies have demonstrated that the parasites do not maintain their own plastid, but rather abscond with a dedifferentiated host plastid as they pack up spores for dispersal. We sequenced a ~90 kb plastid genome from the parasite Choreocolax polysiphoniae, which has lost genes for light harvesting and photosynthesis. Furthermore, the presence of a native C. polysiphoniae plastid indicates that not all red algal parasites follow the same evolutionary pathway to parasitism. Along with the 167 kb plastid genome of its host, Vertebrata lanosa, these plastids are the first to be sequenced from the Ceramiales.     

Nucleus- and nucleomorph-targeted histone proteins in a chlorarachniophyte alga

The plastid of chlorarachniophytes is distinguished by the retention of a relict nucleus (nucleomorph) derived from a green algal endosymbiont, which is located in the periplastidal compartment (PPC). The nucleomorph genome of a chlorarachniophyte, Bigelowiella natans, encodes several plastid-targeted proteins and hundreds of housekeeping proteins, but it lacks many fundamental genes to maintain itself. Here we report the first two host nucleus-encoded genes for proteins targeted to the nucleomorph, histone H2A and H2B. We identified 20 histone genes from the host nuclear genome, and based on phylogenetic analyses predicted that most of these are derived from the host, but that two histone genes are symbiont-derived. The genes both encode N-terminal extensions resembling PPC targeting signals, further suggesting they function in the nucleomorph. Using green fluorescent protein (GFP) fusion proteins expressed in transformed cells, we confirmed that the putative symbiont H2A and H2B were targeted into the nucleomorph, whereas putative host proteins were localized to the host nucleus. Furthermore, we have developed a method to temporarily synchronize B. natans cells, and confirmed that both host and symbiont histone expression is controlled during the cell cycle. Our findings provide the first evidence of how the nucleomorph may be regulated by host-encoded gene products.     

Why are plastid genomes retained in non-photosynthetic organisms?

The evolution of the plastid from a photosynthetic bacterial endosymbiont involved a dramatic reduction in the complexity of the plastid genome, with many genes either discarded or transferred to the nucleus of the eukaryotic host. However, this evolutionary process has not gone to completion and a subset of genes remains in all plastids examined to date. The various hypotheses put forward to explain the retention of the plastid genome have tended to focus on the need for photosynthetic organisms to retain a genetic system in the chloroplast, and they fail to explain why heterotrophic plants and algae, and the apicomplexan parasites all retain a genome in their non-photosynthetic plastids. Here we consider two additional explanations: the 'essential tRNAs' hypothesis and the 'transfer-window' hypothesis.     

Phylogeny of Plastids Based on Cladistic Analysis of Gene Loss Inferred from Complete Plastid Genome Sequences

Based on the recent hypothesis on the origin of eukaryotic phototrophs, red algae, green plants, and glaucophytes constitute the primary photosynthetic eukaryotes (whose plastids may have originated directly from a cyanobacterium-like prokaryote via primary endosymbiosis), whereas the plastids of other lineages of eukaryotic phototrophs appear to be the result of secondary or tertiary endosymbiotic events (involving a phototrophic eukaryote and a host cell). Although phylogenetic analyses using multiple plastid genes from a wide range of eukaryotic lineages have been carried out, some of the major phylogenetic relationships of plastids remain ambiguous or conflict between different phylogenetic methods used for nucleotide or amino acid substitutions. Therefore, an alternative methodology to infer the plastid phylogeny is needed. Here, we carried out a cladistic analysis of the loss of plastid genes after primary endosymbiosis using complete plastid genome sequences from a wide range of eukaryotic phototrophs. Since it is extremely unlikely that plastid genes are regained during plastid evolution, we used the irreversible Camin-Sokal model for our cladistic analysis of the loss of plastid genes. The cladistic analysis of the 274 plastid protein-coding genes resolved the 20 operational taxonomic units representing a wide range of eukaryotic lineages (including three secondary plastid-containing groups) into two large monophyletic groups with high bootstrap values: one corresponded to the red lineage and the other consisted of a large clade composed of the green lineage (green plants and Euglena) and the basal glaucophyte plastid. Although the sister relationship between the green lineage and the Glaucophyta was not resolved in recent phylogenetic studies using amino acid substitutions from multiple plastid genes, it is consistent with the rbcL gene phylogeny and with a recent phylogenetic study using multiple nuclear genes. In addition, our analysis robustly resolved the conflicting/ambiguous phylogenetic positions of secondary plastids in previous phylogenetic studies: the Euglena plastid was sister to the chlorophycean (Chlamydomonas) lineage, and the secondary plastids from the diatom (Odontiella) and cryptophyte (Guillardia) were monophyletic within the red lineage.     

Chlorophyll c-containing plastid relationships based on analyses of a multigene data set with all four chromalveolate lineages

The chlorophyll c-containing algae comprise four major lineages: dinoflagellates, haptophytes, heterokonts, and cryptophytes. These four lineages have sometimes been grouped together based on their pigmentation, but cytological and rRNA data had suggested that they were not a monophyletic lineage. Some molecular data support monophyly of the plastids, while other plastid and host data suggest different relationships. It is uncontroversial that these groups have all acquired plastids from another eukaryote, probably from the red algal lineage, in a secondary endosymbiotic event, but the number and sequence of such event(s) remain controversial. Understanding chlorophyll c-containing plastid relationships is a first step towards determining the number of endosymbiotic events within the chromalveolates. We report here phylogenetic analyses using 10 plastid genes with representatives of all four chromalveolate lineages. This is the first organellar genome-scale analysis to include both haptophytes and dinoflagellates. Concatenated analyses support the monophyly of the chlorophyll c-containing plastids and suggest that cryptophyte plastids are the basal member of the chlorophyll c-containing plastid lineage. The gene psbA, which has at times been used for phylogenetic purposes, was found to differ from the other genes in its placement of the dinoflagellates and the haptophytes, and in its lack of support for monophyly of the green and red plastid lineages. Overall, the concatenated data are consistent with a single origin of chlorophyll c-containing plastids from red algae. However, these data cannot test several key hypothesis concerning chromalveolate host monophyly, and do not preclude the possibility of serial transfer of chlorophyll c-containing plastids among distantly related hosts.     

Heterotachy processes in rhodophyte-derived secondhand plastid genes: Implications for addressing the origin and evolution of dinoflagellate plastids

Serial transfer of plastids from one eukaryotic host to another is the key process involved in evolution of secondhand plastids. Such transfers drastically change the environment of the plastids and hence the selection regimes, presumably leading to changes over time in the characteristics of plastid gene evolution and to misleading phylogenetic inferences. About half of the dinoflagellate protists species are photosynthetic and unique in harboring a diversity of plastids acquired from a wide range of eukaryotic algae. They are therefore ideal for studying evolutionary processes of plastids gained through secondary and tertiary endosymbioses. In the light of these processes, we have evaluated the origin of 2 types of dinoflagellate plastids, containing the peridinin or 19'-hexanoyloxyfucoxanthin (19'-HNOF) pigments, by inferring the phylogeny using "covarion" evolutionary models allowing the pattern of among-site rate variation to change over time. Our investigations of genes from secondary and tertiary plastids derived from the rhodophyte plastid lineage clearly reveal "heterotachy" processes characterized as stationary covarion substitution patterns and changes in proportion of variable sites across sequences. Failure to accommodate covarion-like substitution patterns can have strong effects on the plastid tree topology. Importantly, multigene analyses performed with probabilistic methods using among-site rate and covarion models of evolution conflict with proposed single origin of the peridinin- and 19'-HNOF-containing plastids, suggesting that analysis of secondhand plastids can be hampered by convergence in the evolutionary signature of the plastid DNA sequences. Another type of sequence convergence was detected at protein level involving the psaA gene. Excluding the psaA sequence from a concatenated protein alignment grouped the peridinin plastid with haptophytes, congruent with all DNA trees. Altogether, taking account of complex processes involved in the evolution of dinoflagellate plastid sequences (both at the DNA and amino acid level), we demonstrate the difficulty of excluding independent, tertiary origin for both the peridinin and 19'-HNOF plastids involving engulfment of haptophyte-like algae. In addition, the refined topologies suggest the red algal order, Porphyridales, as the endosymbiont ancestor of the secondary plastids in cryptophytes, haptophytes, and heterokonts.     

Evidence for nucleomorph to host nucleus gene transfer: light-harvesting complex proteins from cryptomonads and chlorarachniophytes

Cryptomonads and chlorarachniophytes acquired photosynthesis independently by engulfing and retaining eukaryotic algal cells. The nucleus of the engulfed cells (known as a nucleomorph) is much reduced and encodes only a handful of the numerous essential plastid proteins normally encoded by the nucleus of chloroplast-containing organisms. In cryptomonads and chlorarachniophytes these proteins are thought to be encoded by genes in the secondary host nucleus. Genes for these proteins were potentially transferred from the nucleomorph (symbiont nucleus) to the secondary host nucleus; nucleus to nucleus intracellular gene transfers. We isolated complementary DNA clones (cDNAs) for chlorophyll-binding proteins from a cryptomonad and a chlorarachniophyte. In each organism these genes reside in the secondary host nuclei, but phylogenetic evidence, and analysis of the targeting mechanisms, suggest the genes were initially in the respective nucleomorphs (symbiont nuclei). Implications for origins of secondary endosymbiotic algae are discussed.     

Novel nucleomorph genome architecture in the cryptomonad genus hemiselmis

Cryptomonads are ubiquitous aquatic unicellular eukaryotes that acquired photosynthesis through the uptake and retention of a red algal endosymbiont. The nuclear genome of the red alga persists in a highly reduced form termed a nucleomorph. The nucleomorph genome of the model cryptomonad Guillardia theta has been completely sequenced and is a mere 551 kilobases (kb) in size, spread over three chromosomes. The presence of three chromosomes appears to be a universal characteristic of nucleomorph genomes in cryptomonad algae as well as in the chlorarachniophytes, an unrelated algal lineage with a nucleomorph and plastid genome derived from a green algal endosymbiont. Another feature of nucleomorph genomes in all cryptomonads and chlorarachniophytes examined thus far is the presence of subtelomeric ribosomal DNA (rDNA) repeats at the ends of each chromosome. Here we describe the first exception to this canonical nucleomorph genome architecture in the cryptomonad Hemiselmis rufescens CCMP644. Using pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE), we estimate the size of the H. rufescens nucleomorph genome to be approximately 580 kb, slightly larger than the G. theta genome. Unlike the situation in G. theta and all other known cryptomonads, sub-telomeric repeats of the rDNA cistron appear to be absent on both ends of the second largest chromosome in H. rufescens and two other members of this genus. Southern hybridizations using a variety of nucleomorph protein gene probes against PFGE-separated H. rufescens chromosomes indicate that recombination has been a major factor in shaping the karyotype and genomic structure of cryptomonad nucleomorphs.     

Rate Variation as a Function of Gene Origin in Plastid-Derived Genes of Peridinin-Containing Dinoflagellates

Peridinin-pigmented dinoflagellates contain secondary plastids that seem to have undergone more nearly complete plastid genome reduction than other eukaryotes. Many typically plastid-encoded genes appear to have been transferred to the nucleus, with a few remaining genes found on minicircles. To understand better the evolution of the dinoflagellate plastid, four categories of plastid-associated genes in dinoflagellates were defined based on their history of transfer and evaluated for rate of sequence evolution, including minicircle genes (presumably plastid-encoded), genes probably transferred from the plastid to the nucleus (plastid-transferred), and genes that were likely acquired directly from the nucleus of the previous plastid host (nuclear-transferred). The fourth category, lateral-transferred genes, are plastid-associated genes that do not appear to have a cyanobacterial origin. The evolutionary rates of these gene categories were compared using relative rate tests and likelihood ratio tests. For comparison with other secondary plastid-containing organisms, rates were calculated for the homologous sequences from the haptophyte Emiliania huxleyi. The evolutionary rate of minicircle and plastid-transferred genes in the dinoflagellate was strikingly higher than that of nuclear-transferred and lateral-transferred genes and, also, substantially higher than that of all plastid-associated genes in the haptophyte. Plastid-transferred genes in the dinoflagellate had an accelerated rate of evolution that was variable but, in most cases, not as extreme as the minicircle genes. Furthermore, the nuclear-transferred and lateral-transferred genes showed rates of evolution that are similar to those of other taxa. Thus, nucleus-to-nucleus transferred genes have a more typical rate of sequence evolution, while those whose history was wholly or partially within the dinoflagellate plastid genome have a markedly accelerated rate of evolution. Electronic Supplementary Material Electronic Supplementary material is available for this article at and accessible for authorised users. [Reviewing Editor: Dr. Debashish Battacharya]     

Presequence Acquisition During Secondary Endocytobiosis and thePossible Role of Introns

Targeting of nucleus-encoded proteins into chloroplasts is mediated by N-terminal presequences. During evolution of plastids from formerly free-living cyanobacteria by endocytobiosis, genes for most plastid proteins have been transferred from the plastid genome to the nucleus and subsequently had to be equipped with such plastid targeting sequences. So far it is unclear how the gene domains coding for presequences and the respective mature proteins may have been assembled. While land plant plastids are supposed to originate from a primary endocytobiosis event (a prokaryotic cyanobacterium was taken up by a eukaryotic cell), organisms with secondary plastids like diatoms experienced a second endocytobiosis step involving a eukaryotic alga taken up by a eukaryotic host cell. In this group of algae, apparently most genes encoding chloroplast proteins have been transferred a second time (from the nucleus of the endosymbiont to the nucleus of the secondary host) and thus must have been equipped with additional targeting signals. We have analyzed cDNAs and the respective genomic DNA fragments of seven plastid preproteins from the diatom Phaeodactylum tricornutum. In all of these genes we found single spliceosomal introns, generally located within the region coding for the N-terminal plastid targeting sequences or shortly downstream of it. The positions of the introns can be related to the putative phylogenetic histories of the respective genes, indicating that the bipartite targeting sequences in these secondary algae might have evolved by recombination events via introns.The nucleotide sequences have been deposited at Genbank under accession numbers AY191862, AY191863, AY191864, AY191865, AY191866, AY191867, and AY191868.