Temperature-Induced Viral Resistance in Emiliania huxleyi (Prymnesiophyceae)

Annual Emiliania huxleyi blooms (along with other coccolithophorid species) play important roles in the global carbon and sulfur cycles. E. huxleyi blooms are routinely terminated by large, host-specific dsDNA viruses, (Emiliania huxleyi Viruses; EhVs), making these host-virus interactions a driving force behind their potential impact on global biogeochemical cycles. Given projected increases in sea surface temperature due to climate change, it is imperative to understand the effects of temperature on E. huxleyi’s susceptibility to viral infection and its production of climatically active dimethylated sulfur species (DSS). Here we demonstrate that a 3°C increase in temperature induces EhV-resistant phenotypes in three E. huxleyi strains and that successful virus infection impacts DSS pool sizes. We also examined cellular polar lipids, given their documented roles in regulating host-virus interactions in this system, and propose that alterations to membrane-bound surface receptors are responsible for the observed temperature-induced resistance. Our findings have potential implications for global biogeochemical cycles in a warming climate and for deciphering the particular mechanism(s) by which some E. huxleyi strains exhibit viral resistance.     

Biochemical diversity of glycosphingolipid biosynthesis as a driver of Coccolithovirus competitive ecology

Coccolithoviruses (EhVs) are large, double-stranded DNA-containing viruses that infect the single-celled, marine coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi. Given the cosmopolitan nature and global importance of E. huxleyi as a bloom-forming, calcifying, photoautotroph, E. huxleyi–EhV interactions play a key role in oceanic carbon biogeochemistry. Virally-encoded glycosphingolipids (vGSLs) are virulence factors that are produced by the activity of virus-encoded serine palmitoyltransferase (SPT). Here, we characterize the dynamics, diversity and catalytic production of vGSLs in an array of EhV strains in relation to their SPT sequence composition and explore the hypothesis that they are a determinant of infectivity and host demise. vGSL production and diversity was positively correlated with increased virulence, virus replication rate and lytic infection dynamics in laboratory experiments, but they do not explain the success of less-virulent EhVs in natural EhV communities. The majority of EhV-derived SPT amplicon sequences associated with infected cells in the North Atlantic derived from slower infecting, less virulent EhVs. Our lab-, field- and mathematical model-based data and simulations support ecological scenarios whereby slow-infecting, less-virulent EhVs successfully compete in North Atlantic populations of E. huxleyi, through either the preferential removal of fast-infecting, virulent EhVs during active infection or by having access to a broader host range.     

Molecular Dynamics of Emiliania huxleyi and Cooccurring Viruses during Two Separate Mesocosm Studies

In this study we used denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis, sequencing analysis, and analytical flow cytometry to monitor the dynamics and genetic richness of Emiliania huxleyi isolates and cooccurring viruses during two mesocosm experiments in a Norwegian fjord in 2000 and 2003. We exploited variations in a gene encoding a protein with calcium-binding motifs (GPA) and in the major capsid protein (MCP) gene to assess allelic and genotypic richness within E. huxleyi and E. huxleyi-specific viruses (EhVs), respectively. To our knowledge, this is the first report that shows the effectiveness of the GPA gene for analysis of natural communities of E. huxleyi. Our results revealed the existence of a genetically rich, yet stable E. huxleyi and EhV community in the fjordic environment. Incredibly, the same virus and host genotypes dominated in separate studies conducted 3 years apart. Both E. huxleyi-dominated blooms contained the same six E. huxleyi alleles. In addition, despite the presence of at least six and four EhV genotypes at the start of the blooms in 2000 and 2003, respectively, the same two virus genotypes dominated the naturally occurring infections during the exponential and termination phases of the blooms in both years.     

Effects of the diatom-Emiliana huxleyi succession on photosynthesis, calcification and carbon metabolism by size-fractioned phytoplankton

Changes in the species composition, photosynthesis, calcification and size-fractionated carbon metabolism by natural phytoplankton assemblages were monitored in three mesocosms under different nutrient conditions during May 1993. In the 3 enclosures, the decline of the diatom-dominated assemblages was followed by the development of a bloom of the coccolithoporid Emiliania huxleyi. Highest growth of E. huxleyi was observed in the mesocosm with a high N : P ratio, suggesting this species is a good competitor at low phosphate concentrations. The transition from diatom- to E. huxleyi-dominated assemblages brought about a sharp reduction of the phytoplankton standing stock and carbon-specific photosynthetic rate. The relative contribution of the smaller size fraction to total photosynthesis increased as the succession progressed. Calcification rate and E. huxleyi cell-specified calcite production were highest during the early stages of development of the E. huxleyi bloom. Distinct changes in the patterns of ¹⁴C allocation into biomolecules were noticed during the diatom-E. huxleyi succession. The diatom-dominated assemblage showed high relative ¹⁴C incorporation into low molecular weight metabolites (LMWM), whereas proteins and, specially, lipids accounted for the largest proportion of carbon incorporation in the E. huxleyi bloom. The patterns of photoassimilated carbon metabolism proved to be strongly dependent on cellular size, as protein relative synthesis was significantly higher in the smaller than in the larger size fraction, irrespective of the nutrient regime and the successional stage. These results are discussed in relation to the ecological and physiological features of small phytoplankton.     

FUNCTIONAL GENETIC DIVERGENCE IN HIGH CO2 ADAPTED EMILIANIA HUXLEYI POPULATIONS

Predicting the impacts of environmental change on marine organisms, food webs, and biogeochemical cycles presently relies almost exclusively on short‐term physiological studies, while the possibility of adaptive evolution is often ignored. Here, we assess adaptive evolution in the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi, a well‐established model species in biological oceanography, in response to ocean acidification. We previously demonstrated that this globally important marine phytoplankton species adapts within 500 generations to elevated CO₂. After 750 and 1000 generations, no further fitness increase occurred, and we observed phenotypic convergence between replicate populations. We then exposed adapted populations to two novel environments to investigate whether or not the underlying basis for high CO₂‐adaptation involves functional genetic divergence, assuming that different novel mutations become apparent via divergent pleiotropic effects. The novel environment “high light” did not reveal such genetic divergence whereas growth in a low‐salinity environment revealed strong pleiotropic effects in high CO₂ adapted populations, indicating divergent genetic bases for adaptation to high CO₂. This suggests that pleiotropy plays an important role in adaptation of natural E. huxleyi populations to ocean acidification. Our study highlights the potential mutual benefits for oceanography and evolutionary biology of using ecologically important marine phytoplankton for microbial evolution experiments.     

Effect of increased pCO2 on phytoplankton–virus interactions

Atmospheric carbon dioxide (CO₂) has increased since the pre-industrial period and is predicted to continue to increase throughout the twenty-first century. The ocean is a sink for atmospheric CO₂ and increased CO₂ concentration will change the carbonate equilibrium of seawater and result in lower carbonate ion concentration and lower pH. This may affect the entire marine biota but in particular calcifying organisms. In this study we investigated the effect of increased CO₂ on the virus host interaction of Emiliania huxleyi as a calcifying organism and of Phaeocystis poucheti as a non- calcifying organism. Both algae were grown in laboratory controlled conditions under past (280 ppmv), present (350 ppmv) and future (700 ppmv) CO₂ concentrations with and without added virus. Increased CO₂ had a negative effect on the growth rate of P. pouchetii, but not of E. huxleyi. No impact was found on viral lysis of P. pouchetii while increased burst size and slightly delayed lysis was observed for E. huxleyi with increased CO₂. We conclude that this short time study could not confirm earlier reports and our hypothesis of a negative effect of high CO₂ on E. huxleyi growth and E. huxleyi virus production.     

ASSESSING THE ROLE OF CASPASE ACTIVITY AND METACASPASE EXPRESSION ON VIRAL SUSCEPTIBILITY OF THE COCCOLITHOPHORE,EMILIANIA HUXLEYI (HAPTOPHYTA)

As part of their strategy to infect the globally important coccolithophore, Emiliania huxleyi (Lohmann) W.W. Hay & H.P. Mohler, Coccolithoviruses trigger and regulate the host's programmed cell death (PCD) machinery during lytic infection. The induction and recruitment of host metacaspases, specialized, ancestral death proteases that facilitate viral lysis, suggests they may be important subcellular determinants to infection. We examined the “basal” levels and patterns of caspase activity and metacaspase expression in exponentially growing resistant and sensitive E. huxleyi strains and linked them with susceptibility to E. huxleyi virus 1 (EhV1). Resistant E. huxleyi strains were consistently characterized by low caspase specific activity and a relatively simple metacaspase expression profile. In contrast, sensitive E. huxleyi strains had markedly elevated caspase specific activity and consistently expressed more diverse metacaspase proteins. Using pooled data sets from triplicate experiments, we observed statistically significant linear correlations between infectivity, caspase activity, and metacaspase expression, with each strain forming distinct clusters, within a gradient in viral susceptibility. At the same time, we observed positive correlations between the expression of a subset of metacaspase proteins and lower susceptibility, suggestive of potential protective roles. Our findings implicate the importance of subtle differences in the basal physiological regulation of the PCD machinery to viral resistance or sensitivity and cell fate.     

Identification and functional characterisation of genes encoding the omega-3 polyunsaturated fatty acid biosynthetic pathway from the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi

The Prymnesiophyceae coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi is one of the most abundant alga in our oceans and therefore plays a central role in marine foodwebs. E. huxleyi is notable for the synthesis and accumulation of the omega-3 long chain polyunsaturated fatty acid docosahexaenoic acid (DHA; 22:6Δ^{4,7,10,13,16,19}, n − 3) which is accumulated in fish oils and known to have health-beneficial properties to humans, preventing cardiovascular disease and related pathologies. Here we describe the identification and functional characterisation of the five E. huxleyi genes which direct the synthesis of docosahexaenoic acid in this alga. Surprisingly, E. huxleyi does not use the conventional Δ6-pathway, instead using the alternative Δ8-desaturation route which has previously only been observed in a few unrelated microorganisms. Given that E. huxleyi accumulates significant levels of the Δ6-desaturated fatty acid stearidonic acid (18:4Δ^6,9,12,15, n − 3), we infer that the biosynthesis of DHA is likely to be metabolically compartmentalised from the synthesis of stearidonic acid.     

Polymorphic microsatellite loci in global populations of the marine coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi

The marine coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi is an important component of the marine carbon cycle because bloom development results in the export of calcium carbonate from the ocean surface to the abyss. Laboratory and field studies demonstrate significant biogeographical, ecological, physiological and morphological plasticity in E. huxleyi and suggest high underlying genetic variability. Here we describe seven polymorphic microsatellite loci from the E. huxleyi genome and their degree of polymorphism in clonal isolates of different geographical origin. Our results indicate a high degree of genetic diversity within E. huxleyi.     

Virus Succession Observed during an Emiliania huxleyi Bloom

Denaturing gradient gel electrophoresis was used as a molecular tool to determine the diversity and to monitor population dynamics of viruses that infect the globally important coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi. We exploited variations in the major capsid protein gene from E. huxleyi-specific viruses to monitor their genetic diversity during an E. huxleyi bloom in a mesocosm experiment off western Norway. We reveal that, despite the presence of several virus genotypes at the start of an E. huxleyi bloom, only a few virus genotypes eventually go on to kill the bloom.     

The response of carotenoids and chlorophylls during virus infection of Emiliania huxleyi (Prymnesiophyceae)

We report the response of carotenoids and chlorophylls during 120 h time series virus infection experiments of the marine coccolithophorid Emiliania huxleyi (Lohm.) Hay et Mohler culture. The response of individual carotenoids to infection varied: Diatoxanthin (Dtx) increased rapidly relative to chlorophyll-a, whereas diadinoxanthin (Ddx) and β-carotene showed a rapid decrease and fucoxanthin and 19′hexanoyloxyfucoxanthin a slight increase. The response of the individual carotenoids reflects their role in epoxy/de-epoxidation cycling, antioxidant protection, biosynthetic conversion and vulnerability to photooxidative destruction. We observed for the first time the operation of the diadinoxanthin cycle occurring in response to viral infection in E. huxleyi with the de-epoxidation ratio (Dtx / (Dtx + Ddx)) increasing exponentially with time (R² = 0.92) and decreasing exponentially with F_V / F_M (R² = 0.97). Our findings contribute to our understanding of the conversion and fate of key biochemical cell constituents in algae and are important in understanding the physiological stress response to virus infection.     

Microbial and viral metagenomes of a subtropical freshwater reservoir subject to climatic disturbances

Extreme climatic activities, such as typhoons, are widely known to disrupt our natural environment. In particular, studies have revealed that typhoon-induced perturbations can result in several long-term effects on various ecosystems. In this study, we have conducted a 2-year metagenomic survey to investigate the microbial and viral community dynamics associated with environmental changes and seasonal variations in an enclosed freshwater reservoir subject to episodic typhoons. We found that the microbial community structure and the associated metagenomes continuously changed, where microbial richness increased after typhoon events and decreased during winter. Among the environmental factors that influenced changes in the microbial community, precipitation was considered to be the most significant. Similarly, the viral community regularly showed higher relative abundances and diversity during summer in comparison to winter, with major variations happening in several viral families including Siphoviridae, Myoviridae, Podoviridae and Microviridae. Interestingly, we also found that the precipitation level was associated with the terrestrial viral abundance in the reservoir. In contrast to the dynamic microbial community (L-divergence 0.73±0.25), we found that microbial metabolic profiles were relatively less divergent (L-divergence 0.24±0.04) at the finest metabolic resolution. This study provides for the first time a glimpse at the microbial and viral community dynamics of a subtropical freshwater ecosystem, adding a comprehensive set of new knowledge to aquatic environments.     

Gene expression changes in the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi after 500 generations of selection to ocean acidification

Coccolithophores are unicellular marine algae that produce biogenic calcite scales and substantially contribute to marine primary production and carbon export to the deep ocean. Ongoing ocean acidification particularly impairs calcifying organisms, mostly resulting in decreased growth and calcification. Recent studies revealed that the immediate physiological response in the coccolithophore Emiliania huxleyi to ocean acidification may be partially compensated by evolutionary adaptation, yet the underlying molecular mechanisms are currently unknown. Here, we report on the expression levels of 10 candidate genes putatively relevant to pH regulation, carbon transport, calcification and photosynthesis in E. huxleyi populations short-term exposed to ocean acidification conditions after acclimation (physiological response) and after 500 generations of high CO₂ adaptation (adaptive response). The physiological response revealed downregulation of candidate genes, well reflecting the concomitant decrease of growth and calcification. In the adaptive response, putative pH regulation and carbon transport genes were up-regulated, matching partial restoration of growth and calcification in high CO₂-adapted populations. Adaptation to ocean acidification in E. huxleyi likely involved improved cellular pH regulation, presumably indirectly affecting calcification. Adaptive evolution may thus have the potential to partially restore cellular pH regulatory capacity and thereby mitigate adverse effects of ocean acidification.     

The mutual interplay between calcification and coccolithovirus infection

Two prominent characteristics of marine coccolithophores are their secretion of coccoliths and their susceptibility to infection by coccolithoviruses (EhVs), both of which display variation among cells in culture and in natural populations. We examined the impact of calcification on infection by challenging a variety of Emiliania huxleyi strains at different calcification states with EhVs of different virulence. Reduced cellular calcification was associated with increased infection and EhV production, even though calcified cells and associated coccoliths had significantly higher adsorption coefficients than non-calcified (naked) cells. Sialic acid glycosphingolipids, molecules thought to mediate EhV infection, were generally more abundant in calcified cells and enriched in purified, sorted coccoliths, suggesting a biochemical link between calcification and adsorption rates. In turn, viable EhVs impacted cellular calcification absent of lysis by inducing dramatic shifts in optical side scatter signals and a massive release of detached coccoliths in a subpopulation of cells, which could be triggered by resuspension of healthy, calcified host cells in an EhV-free, ‘induced media’. Our findings show that calcification is a key component of the E. huxleyi-EhV arms race and an aspect that is critical both to the modelling of these host–virus interactions in the ocean and interpreting their impact on the global carbon cycle.     

Potential virus-mediated nitrogen cycling in oxygen-depleted oceanic waters

Viruses play an important role in the ecology and biogeochemistry of marine ecosystems. Beyond mortality and gene transfer, viruses can reprogram microbial metabolism during infection by expressing auxiliary metabolic genes (AMGs) involved in photosynthesis, central carbon metabolism, and nutrient cycling. While previous studies have focused on AMG diversity in the sunlit and dark ocean, less is known about the role of viruses in shaping metabolic networks along redox gradients associated with marine oxygen minimum zones (OMZs). Here, we analyzed relatively quantitative viral metagenomic datasets that profiled the oxygen gradient across Eastern Tropical South Pacific (ETSP) OMZ waters, assessing whether OMZ viruses might impact nitrogen (N) cycling via AMGs. Identified viral genomes encoded six N-cycle AMGs associated with denitrification, nitrification, assimilatory nitrate reduction, and nitrite transport. The majority of these AMGs (80%) were identified in T4-like Myoviridae phages, predicted to infect Cyanobacteria and Proteobacteria, or in unclassified archaeal viruses predicted to infect Thaumarchaeota. Four AMGs were exclusive to anoxic waters and had distributions that paralleled homologous microbial genes. Together, these findings suggest viruses modulate N-cycling processes within the ETSP OMZ and may contribute to nitrogen loss throughout the global oceans thus providing a baseline for their inclusion in the ecosystem and geochemical models.Subject terms: Virus-host interactions, Biogeochemistry, Microbial biooceanography, Microbial ecology     

Single-cell genomics-based analysis of virus–host interactions in marine surface bacterioplankton

Viral infections dynamically alter the composition and metabolic potential of marine microbial communities and the evolutionary trajectories of host populations with resulting feedback on biogeochemical cycles. It is quite possible that all microbial populations in the ocean are impacted by viral infections. Our knowledge of virus–host relationships, however, has been limited to a minute fraction of cultivated host groups. Here, we utilized single-cell sequencing to obtain genomic blueprints of viruses inside or attached to individual bacterial and archaeal cells captured in their native environment, circumventing the need for host and virus cultivation. A combination of comparative genomics, metagenomic fragment recruitment, sequence anomalies and irregularities in sequence coverage depth and genome recovery were utilized to detect viruses and to decipher modes of virus–host interactions. Members of all three tailed phage families were identified in 20 out of 58 phylogenetically and geographically diverse single amplified genomes (SAGs) of marine bacteria and archaea. At least four phage–host interactions had the characteristics of late lytic infections, all of which were found in metabolically active cells. One virus had genetic potential for lysogeny. Our findings include first known viruses of Thaumarchaeota, Marinimicrobia, Verrucomicrobia and Gammaproteobacteria clusters SAR86 and SAR92. Viruses were also found in SAGs of Alphaproteobacteria and Bacteroidetes. A high fragment recruitment of viral metagenomic reads confirmed that most of the SAG-associated viruses are abundant in the ocean. Our study demonstrates that single-cell genomics, in conjunction with sequence-based computational tools, enable in situ, cultivation-independent insights into host–virus interactions in complex microbial communities.     

PRODUCTION AND CELLULAR LOCALIZATION OF NEUTRAL LONG‐CHAIN LIPIDS IN THE HAPTOPHYTE ALGAE ISOCHRYSIS GALBANA AND EMILIANIA HUXLEYI1

Isochrysis galbana Parke, Emiliania huxleyi (Lohm.) Hay and Mohler, and some related prymnesiophyte algae produce as neutral lipids a set of polyunsaturated long‐chain (C_37–39) alkenones, alkenoates, and alkenes (PULCA). These biomarkers are widely used for paleothermometry, but the biosynthesis and cellular location of these unique lipids remain largely unknown. By staining with the fluorescent lipophilic dye Nile Red, we found that I. galbana and E. huxleyi, like many other algae, package their neutral lipid into cytoplasmic vesicles or lipid bodies. We found that these lipid bodies increase in abundance under nutrient limitation and disappear under prolonged darkness and show that this pattern correlates well with the concentration of PULCA as measured by TLC. In addition, we show that lipid vesicles purified by sucrose density gradient centrifugation consist predominantly of PULCA. We also found significant pools of neutral lipid associated with chloroplasts, and PULCA component profiles in lipid vesicles and chloroplasts are similar. Examination of cell ultrastructure shows conspicuous cytoplasmic and chloroplast lipid bodies, and we suggest that PULCA may be synthesized in chloroplasts and then exported to cytoplasmic lipid bodies for storage and eventual metabolism. Our results connect and extend prior observations of lipid bodies and membrane‐unbound PULCA in I. galbana and E. huxleyi, as well as the behavior of PULCA during nutrient and light stress.