Movement of plankton through lake-stream systems

1. River plankton are often assumed to come from upstream lakes, but the factors controlling the movement of plankton between lakes and rivers into outflow streams are unclear. We tested the possibility that the physical structure of the littoral zone near the lake outlet (depth, presence of macrophytes) and diurnal differences in plankton composition at the lake surface influence the movement of plankton from the lake into the stream and determine their persistence downstream. 2. Zooplankton and phytoplankton biomass, community composition and mean body size were compared between two deep lakes without macrophytes at the lake edge and two shallow lakes with macrophytes at the lake edge. Samples were collected day and night on three dates, in the lake centre, in the littoral zone adjacent to the lake outlet, at the outlet and at two sites downstream in Algonquin Park, Ontario, Canada. 3. The morphology of lake edges clearly affects the movement of lake zooplankton into outlet streams. Outlets draining deeper littoral zones had higher zooplankton biomass than shallow littoral outlets (P < 0.0001), but these differences disappeared within 50 m downstream of the lake. There was no difference in mean zooplankton body size among lake outlets or between littoral and outlet samples. However, shallow littoral zones were dominated by cyclopoid copepods and deeper littoral zones were dominated by Bosmina longirostris. In contrast, phytoplankton biomass entering the outlet was similar to that found within the lake and did not vary with lake outlet morphology. These effects were consistent across several sampling weeks and were not affected by surface zooplankton biomass changes associated with diurnal vertical migration in the lake centre. 4. A comparison with published river zooplankton data suggests that zooplankton are rapidly eliminated from shallow outlet streams (≤1 m deep) but persist in most deeper outlet rivers (≥2 m deep). Because the depth of an outlet river determines downstream zooplankton community development, the contribution of lakes to river plankton communities may be influenced by the location of each lake within the drainage basin. These findings suggest that lake and outflow physical structure influences connection strength between spatially successive habitats.     

Poor nutritional quality of primary producers and zooplankton driven by eutrophication is mitigated at upper trophic levels

Eutrophication and rising water temperature in freshwaters may increase the total production of a lake while simultaneously reducing the nutritional quality of food web components. We evaluated how cyanobacteria blooms, driven by agricultural eutrophication (in eutrophic Lake Köyliöjärvi) or global warming (in mesotrophic Lake Pyhäjärvi), influence the biomass and structure of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and fish communities. In terms of the nutritional value of food web components, we evaluated changes in the ω‐3 and ω‐6 polyunsaturated fatty acids (PUFA) of phytoplankton and consumers at different trophic levels. Meanwhile, the lakes did not differ in their biomasses of phytoplankton, zooplankton, and fish communities, lake trophic status greatly influenced the community structures. The eutrophic lake, with agricultural eutrophication, had cyanobacteria bloom throughout the summer months whereas cyanobacteria were abundant only occasionally in the mesotrophic lake, mainly in early summer. Phytoplankton community differences at genus level resulted in higher arachidonic acid, eicosapentaenoic acid (EPA), and docosahexaenoic acid (DHA) content of seston in the mesotrophic than in the eutrophic lake. This was also reflected in the EPA and DHA content of herbivorous zooplankton (Daphnia and Bosmina) despite more efficient trophic retention of these biomolecules in a eutrophic lake than in the mesotrophic lake zooplankton. Planktivorous juvenile fish (perch and roach) in a eutrophic lake overcame the lower availability of DHA in their prey by more efficient trophic retention and biosynthesis from the precursors. However, the most efficient trophic retention of DHA was found with benthivorous perch which prey contained only a low amount of DHA. Long‐term cyanobacterial blooming decreased the nutritional quality of piscivorous perch; however, the difference was much less than previously anticipated. Our result shows that long‐term cyanobacteria blooming impacts the structure of plankton and fish communities and lowers the nutritional quality of seston and zooplankton, which, however, is mitigated at upper trophic levels.     

Recurrent response patterns of a zooplankton community to whole-lake fish manipulation

1. In a series of whole-lake manipulations conducted from 1984 to 1991, planktivorous fishes were alternately removed and restocked in a small mesotrophic lake, resulting in dramatic changes in the zooplankton community. 2. Response patterns in the zooplankton community, which include species and size structure, and within-year community variability, were examined. Variation in the zooplankton community in unmanipulated years was much lower than that in manipulated years, regardless of direction of the manipulation (i.e. decreasing or increasing planktivory). 3. The succession of zooplankton species abundance was repeated in the second removal of planktivorous fishes. The community shifted from small-bodied cladocerans, copepods and rotifers, through an intermediate state with high abundance of Holopedium, to an assemblage dominated by large-bodied daphnids.     

The Role of Predation in Causing Major Changes in the Limnology of a Hyper-Eutrophic Lake

An experiment was carried out by separation of a shallow man-made lake into two basins with an earth dam. Unintended leaks allowed extremely fertile river water to feed both basins so that nutrients were unlikely ever to have been limiting to phytoplankton populations. The two basins had greatly differing fish populations. In the basin in which these were low, a chain of events took place in which zooplankton grazing reduced phytoplankton growth sufficiently to allow establishment of aquatic macrophyte populations and an associated diverse benthic invertebrate community. In the basin to which fish had free access from the river, phytoplankton populations remained high, and no aquatic macrophyte community developed. The implications of these observations for shallow lake management are considered.     

Zooplankton of the drying lake Orog (Mongolia)

Interannual differences in zooplankton parameters of the drying lake Orog depend on the water level and the influence of the lake’s tributary. When the water level is high and pastures are especially close to the shoreline, the zooplankton structure indicates a hypertrophic status. When the water level decreases, pastures are far from the shoreline, and a large proportion of the body of water comes from the tributary, the zooplankton structure characterizes the lake as an oligotrophic waterbody; when the tributary dries up, it is characterized as mesotrophic.     

浙江千岛湖浮游动物群落多样性研究

1999年1～12月对浙江千岛湖浮游动物的群落结构,包括密度多样性和生物量多样性进行了 系统研究。轮虫类的多样性指数最高,并且当湖泊在一定的营养水平范围内（贫营养型向中 营养型过渡）时,轮虫的密度多样性与湖泊的营养水平呈现相同的变化趋势。以时间和空间 为参照,对千岛湖两种浮游动物多样性指数与群落因素之间进行了相关分析,得到相关关系 如下：月变化密度多样性＝-0.922+4.521×密度均匀度,n=12, r=0.872, p<0.001;生物量多样性=1.99-0.348×透明生物量,n=12, r=-0.868, p<0.01;水平变化密度多样性＝2.35+0.008×种类数, n=10, r=0.672, p<0.05;生物量多样性=2.88-1.739×生物量优势度, n=10, r=-0.826, p<0.01。     

Plankton dynamics along a 180 km reach of the Saint Lawrence River from its headwaters in Lake Ontario

We test the hypothesis that phytoplankton biomass decrease upon entry into the St. Lawrence River from headwaters in Lake Ontario is attributable to a range of causal factors including, decreased photosynthetic fitness due to turbulence, cell loss due to increased flocculation and subsequent sedimentation, decreases in nutrients, and loss due to grazing. In order to test this, changes in phytoplankton and crustacean zooplankton concentrations were examined during four transects along the river, from 8 km offshore in Lake Ontario to the hydroelectric power dam 180 km downstream. Both phytoplankton biomass, measured as chlorophyll-a, and zooplankton decreased markedly upon entry of lake water into the river. Phytoplankton community composition and size changed little over the river reach and tended to reflect that in Lake Ontario. Total phosphorus increased with transit of river water downstream despite low tributary inputs of water into this reach of river. Light availability was high, photosynthetic efficiency suggested that phytoplankton were not physiologically stressed during transit in turbulent waters, and there was no direct evidence of flocculation causing sedimentation of phytoplankton. Grazing by the benthic community (filtering insect larvae and dreissenid mussels) is inferred to be a dominant biological factor as is the geomorphology in this reach of the river, which includes large littoral areas, shoals, and reaches of high water velocity that can increase particle contact in the water column with benthic grazers. The findings of this study have a bearing on understanding how changing water levels in a regulated river might alter areas of benthic grazing.     

Plankton development in a rapidly flushed lake in the River Spree system (Neuendorfer See, Northeast Germany)

The Neuendorfer See is a shallow lake through which the RiverSpree flows. In the lake, abundances of zooplankton (mainlyrotifers) and phytoplankton increased exponentially over theflowing stretch between the inflow and the outflow of the river.Increase in space is enhanced by increased residence time inthe lake. Sensitivity of plankton development on residence timesof >8 days weakened at longer residence times. This patternholds for all zooplankton species. Rates of change in chlorophylland rotifers (after correction for temperature) are first enhanced,then are decreased at longer residence times. Concentrationsof dissolved inorganic nutrients [Si, soluble reactive phosphorus(SRP) and NO₃–] and the N/P ratio diminished with increasingresidence time. The plankton dynamics in the lake were dependenton discharge and the lake behaved as a ‘plug flow tubularreactor’ with minor longitudinal mixing. This was notdifferent from the transportation in large rivers.     

Longitudinal changes in zooplankton distribution below a reservoir outfall with reference to river planktivory

The fate and interactions with river organisms of zooplankton as they drift downriver from a reservoir on a fourth-order mountain stream (Hiji River, Japan) were investigated. Monthly samples were collected at the reservoir and six river sites, simultaneously, from May 2005 to May 2006. Aquatic macroinvertebrates and fish were colleted, and their stomach contents were analyzed in April and May, 2006, respectively. Drift from the reservoir was the primary source for the river plankton community; the abundance of zooplankton, particularly those of cladocerans and large rotifer, rapidly decreased within several kilometers of the dam. Analysis of the contents of fish stomachs showed that drifting zooplankton was the main food for fish, with strong food selectivity for cladocerans and large rotifers. However, fish and insect planktivores showed longitudinally different stomach contents, with progressively fewer zooplankton found in the stomachs at the downriver sites. The results suggest that the outflow of zooplankton from the reservoir is an important food source for the downstream predators, especially fish, but the drift of zooplankton and consequent food availability for the predators at lower sites are strongly limited by concentrated fish predation just below the reservoir dam.     

Complementary impact of copepods and cladocerans on phytoplankton

The differences in the impact of two major groups of herbivorous zooplankton (Cladocera and Copepoda) on summer phytoplankton in a mesotrophic lake were studied. Field experiments were performed in which phytoplankton were exposed to different densities of two major types of herbivorous zooplankton, cladocerans and copepods. Contrary to expectation, neither of the two zooplankton groups significantly reduced phytoplankton biomass. However, there were strong and contrasting impacts on phytoplankton size structure and on individual taxa. Cladocerans suppressed small phytoplankton, while copepods suppressed large phytoplankton. The unaffected size classes compensated for the loss of those affected by enhanced growth. After contamination of the copepod mesocosms with the cladoceran Daphnia , the combined impact of both zooplankton groups caused a decline in total phytoplankton biomass.     

Influence of Temperature,Photoperiod and Trophic Conditions on the Seasonal Cycles of Phytoplankton and Zooplankton in Two Deep Subarctic Lakes of Northern Canada

The densities of phytoplankton and zooplankton were determined for 12 consecutive months (1978–1979) in two deep oligotrophic lakes in northern Canada. The lakes were situated on the same river system, about 5 km from one another. While they exhibited similar temperature conditions, there were slight differences in the ionic content of the water. Overall, changing temperature was the most important factor influencing the duration of the growth cycles of phytoplankton and zooplankton. Nutrients generally controlled the intensity but not the timing of algal blooms. A similar relationship was recorded for the effects of food supply on the development of the major species of herbivorous zooplankton. Although changing photoperiod likely initiated the growth of several important algal and zooplankton species in the spring and early summer, light had no measurable impact on the development of planktonic communities throughout the remainder of the growing season. The higher ionic content of the water in one lake may have promoted the growth of protozoans during the fall and early winter.     

Formation,Transport and Retention of Aggregates in a River‐Lake System (Spree,Germany)

The formation, particle size distribution, structure and retention of aggregates were studied in a river‐lake system of the lowland River Spree and factors influencing these processes were evaluated. Samples were taken from the inflow and outflow of a flushed lake, as well as along the adjacent flowing reach of the River Spree, between April 2001 and May 2002. The aim was to record the influence of the seasons and different turbulence intensities on the size, shape, composition, abundance and transport properties of the particles. As additional parameters, the phytoplankton biomass, the concentration of suspended particulate matter, the concentrations of nutrients and the discharge were measured. The abundance of the particles showed a strong seasonality in the investigated period, which closely correlated with the concentrations of suspended particulate matter and particulate organic matter in the water column. The organic carbon content of the suspended matter varied between 37% (dry weight) in summer and about 14% in winter. The concentration of particles ranged between 500 and 2500 particles/ml. The number of particles was significantly lower upstream from the lake than at the downstream transects. The majority of the aggregates in the River Spree were smaller than 500 µm, most of the particles even showing a diameter less than 50 µm. Many particles, above all algae, were washed out of the lake Neuendorfer See into the adjacent flowing reach of the River Spree. Algae influenced the abundance of the particles and contributed to the formation of aggregates with their stickiness. In the river flowing section large particles were formed by turbulence structures, whilst simultaneously the number of smaller particles decreased in the water column caused by aggregation processes. In general, an increasing flow velocity and discharge rate resulted in a larger amount of aggregates in the water column. On the other hand, particle abundance was reduced in the flow direction when the flow velocity was low. Under these conditions particles were retained by sedimentation and benthic filter‐feeding. (© 2005 WILEY‐VCH Verlag GmbH & Co. KGaA, Weinheim)     

Changes in the fish and zooplankton communities of Ringsjön,a Swedish lake undergoing man-made eutrophication

During the 20th century Lake Ringsjön has developed from a mesotrophic to a eutrophic lake, and the phytoplankton community has changed from a rather diverse community to a monoculture of blue-green algae. The eutrophication process has accelerated during the last decade. The most important external nutrient loading of today comes from agriculture.Although phosphorus has been shown to be the primary nutrient leading to excessive algal growth in fresh water, several biotic factors — such as interactions between nutrients, phytoplankton, zooplankton and planktivorous fish — may play a decisive role in the occurrence and maintenance of large algal blooms.The aim of this investigation was to study the changes in the fish community of Lake Ringsjön, especially the most dominant planktivores, and the state of the zooplankton community during the seventies. The fish fauna is dominated by cyprinids, especially roach, and there are relatively few predatory fish. During the seventies the mean size of roach decreased, and measurements of the zooplankton community indicated that the predation pressure on zooplankton had increased. The mean sizes of cladocerans such as Daphnia and Bosmina, which were selected for by the planktivorous fish, decreased; the size of the calanoid Diaptomus, which was not preyed upon by the dominating fish species, did not change. The growth of zooplankton-feeding stages of several fish species was retarded, which meant that the growth of young perch decreased, while older roach were mainly affected. In the prevailing situation, planktivorous roach can maintain a numerous population of small individuals, whereas the predatory perch is at a disadvantage, and predation on zooplankton is intense.     

Shifts in zooplankton communities in high-mountain lakes induced by singular events (fish stocking,earthquakes): evidence from a 20-year survey in Slovenia (Central Europe)

Thirteen mountain lakes, originally fishless, at 1325 and 2150 m a.s.l., with the maximum depths ranging from two to 15 m, and areas of 0.3 to 4.5 ha, were monitored between 1991 and 2012 in the Triglav National Park (Slovenia, Central Europe). The lakes are located on limestone bedrock, with no surface inflow or outflow. They range from ultra-oligotrophic to hypertrophic. They were stocked with fish between late 1920s and 1996. The zooplankton samples were collected as composites from the bottom to the surface at the deepest point of the lake, for both qualitative and quantitative analyses. In situ physical parameters in the water column were measured, and the samples for chemical analyses were collected in parallel with the zooplankton sampling. Thirty-two species, including Copepoda, Cladocera, Rotifera and Ciliata, were recorded. They belonged to three ecological groups: (1) constitutive, (2) scout and (3) benthic species. In some of the lakes, the species composition remained stable over the study period, but in lakes stocked with fish, significant changes occurred, in both species composition and biomass. Large-bodied species of Copepoda and Cladocera were eliminated by fish allowing small-bodied planktonic species of Copepoda, Cladocera and Rotifera to dominate the community, along with benthic species, associated with algal mats. The lake, stocked with fish in the 1920s, was hit by two strong consecutive earthquakes, in 1998 and 2004, after which a significant change in species composition and biomass was recorded.

     

Zooplankton (Cladocera) in assessments of biologic integrity and reference conditions: application of sedimentary assemblages from shallow boreal lakes

Zooplankton are potentially powerful proxies for the assessments of biologic integrity. The paleolimnological perspective and use of fossil Cladocera also provide the means to reconstruct reference conditions and natural long-term community dynamics. Unfortunately, the use of zooplankton in lake quality assessments is currently underexploited. We studied a surface sediment dataset of 41 lakes in Finland to examine the relationship between Cladocera remains and environmental variables. Of the examined environmental variables, total phosphorus availability was found to be the most important variable in explaining the Cladocera community composition. Following the tests on species environment relations, we selected a lake trophic typology as the most suitable environmental variable for developing a new tool for limnoecological quality assessments. A test of the model on a modern and historic sample from a eutrophied lake showed that the test lake has proceeded from “mesotrophic/poor” to “eutrophic/bad” limnoecological state in agreement with previous independent evidence. The model developed here showed favorable performance that can be used to provide reliable estimates of ecological and environmental state of lakes.     

Fluctuation of the zooplankton community in Lake Biwa during the 20th century: a paleolimnological analysis

Detailed zooplankton records from a 26-cm sediment core with a time resolution of approximately 3–10 years were obtained from Lake Biwa, Japan, to examine the historical variations in the zooplankton community during the 20th century. In the sediments, selected zooplankton remains have fluctuated over the years. Daphnia – large zooplankton herbivores – did not occur from 1900 to 1920, and formed a very minor component of the zooplankton community in the following 30 years, while Bosmina – small zooplankton herbivores – were common during this period. In the mid-1960s, however, when eutrophication was noticeable in this lake, Daphnia numbers increased dramatically and became the dominant zooplankton thereafter. In contrast, Difflugia brevicolla and D. biwae, two amoeboid protozoans that live in connection with the lake bottom environment, occurred abundantly until the late 1950s, but gradually decreased after the mid-1960s. In particular, D. biwae, a species peculiar to this lake, was not found in sediment dated after 1980, suggesting its extinction. These results indicate that the zooplankton community structure changed greatly in the 1960s, and suggest that the eutrophication occurring at this time altered the relative strength of top-down and bottom-up forces on the zooplankton community in Lake Biwa.     

基于宏基因组的保安湖浮游动物多样性研究

研究于2019年春、夏、秋、冬四季对保安湖进行了水样采集, 基于宏基因组测序, 在优化物种鉴定和丰度计算方法的基础上, 考察了保安湖浮游动物的多样性、群落结构及其影响因素。共鉴定到浮游动物OTU 374种, 其中原生动物282个; 枝角类45个; 桡足类26个; 轮虫21个。从季节来看, 夏、秋季保安湖的浮游动物多样性高; 从湖区来看, 肖四海和主湖区浮游动物多样性高。季节因素对保安湖浮游动物群落结构的影响高于湖区影响。保安湖营养状态为中营养型, 水体温度、叶绿素a是影响保安湖浮游动物群落结构的主要环境因子, 不同类群与环境因子相关性不同, 总体可分为5类。其中原生动物优势类群为混合营养的纤毛虫和丝足虫, 同硝氮、化学需氧量、温度有明显的相关性, 而枝角类和桡足类同环境因子的关系较为相似, 与溶氧、叶绿素a、正磷酸盐存在明显相关。研究利用宏基因组方法对保安湖浮游动物多样性开展了研究, 为从浮游动物这一角度来理解保安湖这一江湖阻隔型湖泊的生物多样性的变化提供了支撑。     

Rheoreaction type of early juveniles of sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka in the Ozernaya River and Lake Kurilskoe

Rheoreaction of early juveniles of sockeye salmon Oncorhynchus nerka is experimentally investigated, including different spatial groups (denatant migrants, contranatant migrants, specimens living in bays and at closed river banks, juveniles from the coastal zone of the lake). Investigation is made in water of the river flowing from the lake and in water of the stream flowing into the lake. It is shown that the rheoreaction (the type of rheoreaction) is one of behavioral mechanisms performing feeding migration of early juveniles of sockeye salmon. Contranatant migrants that reached the feeding lake retain the positive type of rheoreaction, which favors the exit of juveniles from the zone of discharge exclusion and prevents the drift of juveniles to the river at night at poorer conditions for orientation. Juveniles placed into the water of the inflowing stream manifest a sharply negative rheoreaction type contributing to their rapid lakeward migration for feeding. In water of two steams (taking its beginning in the lake and flowing into it) such type of rheoreaction is observed which ensures migration of sockeye juveniles to their principal feeding water body-Lake Kurilskoe.     

Field estimates of zooplankton community grazing in the limed Lago d'Orta (Italy) by the use of a radioisotope-free technique

Grazing experiments were carried out in a limed lake (Lago d'Orta) during the periods, 23–24 March and 28–29 June 1990. A simple in situ technique based on cell counts before and after incubation was used in order to evaluate the impact of the natural zooplankton community on the lake phytoplankton. An estimation of the daily consumption by the natural zooplankton community showed that about 4.6% and 1.04% of the standing algal biomass was removed during March and June respectively. The differences in grazing activities were likely due to the difference in zooplankton community structure and to the surrounding environmental conditions, mainly influenced by the liming intervention, started in the lake water since 1989.     

Zooplankton communities of inter-connected sections of lower River Oder (NW Poland)

The aim of this study was the determination and comparative analysis of the zooplankton communities between the inter-connected sections of the lower Oder river in relation to physicochemical factors. The study was performed at five sites of Oder. Two sites were localized in the main channel of Oder (East Oder), other sites were localized in the west arm of Oder and at the beginning of the canal carrying the post-cooling water from the power plant, and the last site was below at the shallow channel joining the Western Oder with the Eastern Oder. At the channel site in which the two arms of the river are connected a significantly higher taxa number, abundance and biomass of crustaceans was observed than at the other sites. The taxonomic similarity index between all sites was at a rather low level. The Pearson’s coefficient, multiple regression analysis and CCA showed that temperature, conductivity and content of nitrates had the strongest impact on the abundance of zooplankton. Thus, in lower, slowly flowing section of River Oder the physico-chemical variables influenced zooplankton density. Post-cooling water from the power plant influenced the zooplankton communities only in the channel discharging the waters into the river, while its influence on the zooplankton in the Oder is insignificant.