Mitochondrial S-adenosylmethionine deficiency induces mitochondrial unfolded protein response and extends lifespan in Caenorhabditis elegans

S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), generated from methionine and ATP by S-adenosyl methionine synthetase (SAMS), is the universal methyl group donor required for numerous cellular methylation reactions. In Caenorhabditis elegans, silencing sams-1, the major isoform of SAMS, genetically or via dietary restriction induces a robust mitochondrial unfolded protein response (UPR^mt) and lifespan extension. In this study, we found that depleting SAMS-1 markedly decreases mitochondrial SAM levels. Moreover, RNAi knockdown of SLC-25A26, a carrier protein responsible for transporting SAM from the cytoplasm into the mitochondria, significantly lowers the mitochondrial SAM levels and activates UPR^mt, suggesting that the UPR^mt induced by sams-1 mutations might result from disrupted mitochondrial SAM homeostasis. Through a genetic screen, we then identified a putative mitochondrial tRNA methyltransferase TRMT-10C.2 as a major downstream effector of SAMS-1 to regulate UPR^mt and longevity. As disruption of mitochondrial tRNA methylation likely leads to impaired mitochondrial tRNA maturation and consequently reduced mitochondrial translation, our findings suggest that depleting mitochondrial SAM level might trigger UPR^mt via attenuating protein translation in the mitochondria. Together, this study has revealed a potential mechanism by which SAMS-1 regulates UPR^mt and longevity.     

m6A‐mediated alternative splicing coupled with nonsense‐mediated mRNA decay regulates SAM synthetase homeostasis

Alternative splicing of pre‐mRNAs can regulate gene expression levels by coupling with nonsense‐mediated mRNA decay (NMD). In order to elucidate a repertoire of mRNAs regulated by alternative splicing coupled with NMD (AS‐NMD) in an organism, we performed long‐read RNA sequencing of poly(A)⁺ RNAs from an NMD‐deficient mutant strain of Caenorhabditis elegans, and obtained full‐length sequences for mRNA isoforms from 259 high‐confidence AS‐NMD genes. Among them are the S‐adenosyl‐L‐methionine (SAM) synthetase (sams) genes sams‐3 and sams‐4. SAM synthetase activity autoregulates sams gene expression through AS‐NMD in a negative feedback loop. We furthermore find that METT‐10, the orthologue of human U6 snRNA methyltransferase METTL16, is required for the splicing regulation in␣vivo, and specifically methylates the invariant AG dinucleotide at the distal 3′ splice site (3′SS) in␣vitro. Direct RNA sequencing coupled with machine learning confirms m⁶A modification of endogenous sams mRNAs. Overall, these results indicate that homeostasis of SAM synthetase in C. elegans is maintained by alternative splicing regulation through m⁶A modification at the 3′SS of the sams genes.     

Evaluation of seed storage-protein gene 5′ untranslated regions in enhancing gene expression in transgenic rice seed

5′ untranslated regions (UTRs) are important sequence elements that modulate the expression of genes. Using the β-glucuronidase (GUS) reporter gene driven by the GluC promoter for the rice-seed storage-protein glutelin, we evaluated the potential of the 5′-UTRs of six seed storage-protein genes in enhancing the expression levels of the foreign gene in stable transgenic rice lines. All of the 5′-UTRs significantly enhanced the expression level of the GluC promoter without altering its expression pattern. The 5′-UTRs of Glb-1 and GluA-1 increased the expression of GUS by about 3.36- and 3.11-fold, respectively. The two 5′-UTRs downstream of the Glb-1, OsAct2 and CMV35S promoters also increased GUS expression level in stable transgenic rice lines or in transient expression protoplasts. Therefore, the enhancements were independent of the promoter sequence. Real-time quantitative RT-PCR analysis showed that the increase in protein production was not accompanied by alteration in mRNA levels, which suggests that the enhancements were due to increasing the translational efficiencies of the mRNA. The 5′-UTRs of Glb-1 and GluA-1, when combined with strong promoters, might be ideal candidates for high production of recombinant proteins in rice seeds.     

Intracellular expression of Vitreoscilla hemoglobin improves S-adenosylmethionine production in a recombinant Pichia pastoris

To develop an efficient way to produce S-adenosylmethionine (SAM), methionine adenosyltransferase gene (mat) from Streptomyces spectabilis and Vitreoscilla hemoglobin gene (vgb) were coexpressed intracellularly in Pichia pastoris, both under control of methanol-inducible promoter. Expression of mat in P. pastoris resulted in about 27 times higher specific activity of methionine adenosyltransferase (SMAT) and about 19 times higher SAM production relative to their respective control, suggesting that overexpression of mat could be used as an efficient method for constructing SAM-accumulating strain. Under induction concentration of 0.8 and 2.4% methanol, coexpression of vgb improved, though to different extent, cell growth, SAM production, and respiratory rate. However, the effects of VHb on SAM content (specific yield of SAM production) and SMAT seemed to be methanol concentration-dependent. When cells were induced with 0.8% methanol, no significant effects of VHb expression on SAM content and specific SMAT could be detected. When the cells were induced with 2.4% methanol, vgb expression increased SAM content significantly and depressed SMAT remarkably. We suggested that under our experimental scheme, the presence of VHb might improve ATP synthesis rate and thus improve cell growth and SAM production in the recombinant P. pastoris.     

The synthesis of the two S-adenosyl-methionine synthetases is differently regulated in Saccharomyces cerevisiae

Summary S-adenosyl-l-methionine (AdoMet) is synthesized by transfer of the adenosyl moiety of ATP to the sulfur atom of methionine. This reaction is catalysed by AdoMet synthetase. In all eukaryotic organisms studied so far, multiple forms of AdoMet synthetases have been reported and from their recent study, it appears that AdoMet synthetase is an exceptionally well conserved enzyme through evolution. In Saccharomyces cerevisiae, we have demonstrated the existence of two AdoMet synthetases encoded by genes SAM1 and SAM2. Yeast, which is able to concentrate exogenously added AdoMet, is thus a particularly useful biological system to understand the role and the physiological significance of the preservation of two almost identical AdoMet synthetases. The analysis of the expression of the two SAM genes in different genetic backgrounds during growth under different conditions shows that the expression of SAM1 and SAM2 is regulated differently. The regulation of SAM1 expression is identical to that of other genes implicated in AdoMet metabolism, where as SAM2 shows a specific pattern of regulation. A careful analysis of the expression of the two genes and of the variations in the methionine and AdoMet intracellular pools during the growth of different strains lead us to postulate the existence of two different AdoMet pools, each one suppplied by a different AdoMet synthetase but in equilibrium with each other. This could be a means of storing AdoMet whenever this metabolite is overproduced, thus avoiding the degradation of a metabolite the synthesis of which is energetically expensive.     

Contribution of sams-1 and pmt-1 to lipid homoeostasis in adult Caenorhabditis elegans

Accumulation of lipids inside the cell is primarily caused by disorders of lipid metabolism. S-adenosylmethionine synthetase (SAMS) produces SAM, an important methyl donor in various phospholipid methyltransferase reactions catalysed by phosphoethanolamine N-methyltransferase (PMT-1). A gel-based, quantitative proteomic analysis of the RNA interference (RNAi)-mediated inactivation of the pod-2 gene, which encodes acetyl-CoA carboxylase, showed a substantial down-regulation of SAMS-1. Consequently, RNAi of either sams-1 or pmt-1 caused a significant increase in lipid droplet size in the intestine of Caenorhabditis elegans. Lipid droplets exhibited increased triacylglycerol (TG) and decreased phosphatidylcholine (PC) levels, suggesting a reciprocal relationship between TG and PC regulation. These lipid-associated phenotypes were rescued by choline feeding. Among the five fat metabolism-related genes examined, two genes were highly induced by inactivation of sams-1 or pmt-1: pod-2 and stearoyl-CoA desaturase (fat-7). Thus, both SAMS-1 and PMT-1 were shown to contribute to the homoeostasis of TG and PC levels in C. elegans, which would provide an important survival strategy under harsh environmental conditions.     

解淀粉芽孢杆菌内源启动子的筛选及表达碱性果胶酶的应用研究

【目的】通过检测目的基因的转录水平和表达强度,筛选来源于解淀粉芽孢杆菌(Bacillus amyloliquefaciens)的内源启动子,确定适合碱性果胶酶基因表达的强启动子,并进一步对选用的强启动子进行分析。【方法】通过生物信息学手段对启动子片段进行预测与筛选,采用相对荧光强度、酶活力等表征手段进行分析,同时采用实时荧光定量聚合酶链式反应(real-time fluorescence quantitative polymerase chain reaction, RT-qPCR)技术检测不同启动子的转录水平。【结果】启动子PrapA、PmetE-1、Phin-1表达碱性果胶酶的活力分别是P43启动子的9.8倍、4.8倍、3.0倍,筛选出的这3个强启动子为其他异源基因在解淀粉芽孢杆菌中的表达奠定了基础。【结论】通过生物信息学手段预测及筛选启动子,筛选得到比较强的启动子PrapA、PmetE-1和Phin-1,有效提高了碱性果胶酶的表达量。     

Lysine enhances methionine content by modulating the expression of S-adenosylmethionine synthase

Lysine and methionine are two essential amino acids whose levels affect the nutritional quality of cereals and legume plants. Both amino acids are synthesized through the aspartate family biosynthesis pathway. Within this family, lysine and methionine are produced by two different branches, the lysine branch and the threonine-methionine branch, which compete for the same carbon/amino substrate. To elucidate the relationship between these biosynthetic branches, we crossed two lines of transgenic tobacco plants: one that overexpresses the feedback-insensitive bacterial enzyme dihydrodipicolinate synthase (DHPS) and contains a significantly higher level of lysine, and a second that overexpresses Arabidopsis cystathionine gamma-synthase (AtCGS), the first unique enzyme of methionine biosynthesis. Significantly higher levels of methionine and its metabolite, S-methylmethionine (SMM), accumulated in the newly produced plants compared with plants overexpressing AtCGS alone, while the level of lysine remained the same as in those overexpressing DHPS alone. The increased levels of methionine and SMM were correlated with increases in the mRNA and protein levels of AtCGS and a reduced mRNA level for the genes encoding S-adnosylmethionine (SAM) synthase, which converts methionine to SAM. Reduction in SAMS expression level leads most probably to the reduction of SAM found in plants that feed with lysine. As SAM is a negative regulator of CGS, this reduction leads to higher expression of CGS and consequently to an increased level of methionine. Elucidating the relationship between lysine and methionine synthesis may lead to new ways of producing transgenic crop plants containing increased methionine and lysine levels, thus improving their nutritional quality.     

High free-methionine and decreased lignin content result from a mutation in the Arabidopsis S-adenosyl-L-methionine synthetase 3 gene

As an approach to understand the regulation of methionine (Met) metabolism, Arabidopsis Met over-accumulating mutants were isolated based on their resistance to selection by ethionine. One mutant, mto3, accumulated remarkably high levels of free Met - more than 200-fold that observed for wild type - yet showed little or no difference in the concentrations of other protein amino-acids, such as aspartate, threonine and lysine. Mutant plants did not show any visible growth differences compared with wild type, except a slight delay in germination. Genetic analysis indicated that the mto3 phenotype was caused by a single, recessive mutation. Positional cloning of this gene revealed that it was a novel S-adenosylmethionine synthetase, SAMS3. A point mutation resulting in a single amino-acid change in the ATP binding domain of SAMS3 was determined to be responsible for the mto3 phenotype. SAMS3 gene expression and total SAMS protein were not changed in mto3; however, both total SAMS activity and S-adenosylmethionine (SAM) concentration were decreased in mto3 compared with wild type. Lignin, a major metabolic sink for SAM, was decreased by 22% in mto3 compared with wild type, presumably due to the reduced supply of SAM. These results suggest that SAMS3 has a different function(s) in one carbon metabolism relative to the other members of the SAMS gene family.     

S-Adenosyl methionine synthetase 1 limits fat storage in Caenorhabditis elegans

Cytosolic lipid droplets are versatile, evolutionarily conserved organelles that are important for the storage and utilization of lipids in almost all cell types. To obtain insight into the physiological importance of lipid droplet size, we isolated and characterized a new S-adenosyl methionine synthetase 1 (SAMS-1)-deficient Caenorhabditis elegans mutant, which have enlarged lipid droplets throughout its life cycle. We found that the sams-1 mutant showed a markedly reduced body size and progeny number; impaired synthesis of phosphatidylcholine, a major membrane phospholipid; and elevated expression of key lipogenic genes, such as dgat-2, resulting in the accumulation of triacylglyceride in fewer, but larger, lipid droplets. The sams-1 mutant store more than 50 % (wild type: 10 %) of its intestinal fat in large lipid droplets, ≥10 μm³ in size. In response to starvation, SAMS-1 deficiency causes reduced depletion of a subset of lipid droplets located in the anterior intestine. Given the importance of liberation of fatty acids from lipid droplets, we propose that the physiological function of SAMS-1, a highly conserved enzyme involved in one-carbon metabolism, is the limitation of fat storage to ensure proper growth and reproduction.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1007/s12263-014-0386-6) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Identification,chromosomal mapping and conserved synteny of porcine Argonaute family of genes

The Argonaute proteins are recently identified and evolutionarily conserved family with two subfamilies Ago and Piwi, which play important roles in small RNA pathways. Most species have eight Argonaute members in their genomes, ranging from 1 to 27. Here we report identification of six Argonaute genes in pig, four members of the Ago subfamily (Ago1, Ago2, Ago3 and Ago4) and two members of the Piwi subfamily (Piwil1 and Piwil2), which were predicted to encode proteins of 857, 860, 860, 861, 861 and 985 amino acids, respectively. Phylogenetic analysis showed that the porcine Ago and Piwi genes were clustered into relevant branch of mammalian Argonaute members. The porcine Ago4- Ago1-Ago3 genes are linked together at the p12 of the chromosome 6, while Ago2 is located at the p15 of the chromosome 4. The porcine Piwil1 and Piwil2 are mapped together onto the chromosome 14, at the q14 and q11 respectively. Comparatively mapping of the Argonaute members on chromosomes showed that linkage group of the Ago4-Ago1-Ago3 and several neighborhood genes is evolutionarily conserved from chicken to mammals. The genes Piwil1 and Piwil2 are separated onto different chromosomes from fish to mammals, with exception to this tendency in both pig and stickleback, indicating an opposite tendency of recombination together or non-disjunction of these two genes during speciation. Further expression analysis showed an ubiquitous expression pattern of Ago members, oppositely a restricted expression pattern in gonads of the Piwi members, suggesting distinct potential roles of the porcine Argonaute genes.