Studies on antimalarial drug susceptibility in Colombia, in relation to Pfmdr1 and Pfcrt

In Colombia, Plasmodium resistance to antimalarials such as chloroquine and antifolates is a serious problem. As a result, the national Colombian health authorities are monitoring the efficacy of alternative drugs and schemes. The study of genetic polymorphisms related with drug resistance is required in the region. In vitro responses to chloroquine, quinine, mefloquine, amodiaquine, desethylamodiaquine, artesunate and dihydroartesunate were carried out by HRP ELISA. SNP analysis in Pfcrt and Pfmdr1 genes was performed by PCR-RFLP in 77 samples from the North West region of Colombia. In vitro resistance to chloroquine was high (74%), followed by mefloquine (30%) and desethylamodiaquine (30%). A positive correlation between the IC(50) of paired drugs was also detected. The allele Pfmdr1 N86 (wild) was present in 100% of the samples and 1246Y (mutant) in 92%. However, their presence did not correlate with in vitro drug resistance. Presence of the mutations K76T and N75E in Pfcrt was confirmed in all samples. Analysis of 4 codons (72, 74, 75 and 76) in pfcrt confirmed the presence of the haplotypes CMET in 91% and SMET in 9% of the samples.     

Gastro-intestinal helminths of donkeys in Burkina Faso

Thirty adult donkeys from Burkina Faso were necropsied and their gastro-intestinal worm burdens counted and determined. The strongylids were the most abundant species with a prevalence of 100% for Strongylus vulgaris. Four species of Strongylus, two of Triodontophorus and six of the Cyathostominae were recovered. All of the animals were also infested with habronematid nematodes, but oxyurid and ascaridid nematodes were found in low numbers. In addition to the nematodes, the paramphistomid trematode Gastrodiscus aegyptiacus and the anoplocephalid cestode Anoplocephala magna occurred in varying numbers. Faecal egg-counts from 131 donkeys ranged between 100 and 9,200 for strongylid eggs.     

Efficacy and Safety of Fixed-Dose Artesunate-Amodiaquine vs. Artemether-Lumefantrine for Repeated Treatment of Uncomplicated Malaria in Ugandan Children

The safety and efficacy of the two most widely used fixed-dose artemisinin-based combination therapies (ACT), artesunate-amodiaquine (ASAQ) and artemether-lumefantrine (AL) are well established for single episodes of uncomplicated Plasmodium falciparum malaria, but the effects of repeated, long-term use are not well documented. We conducted a 2-year randomized, open-label, longitudinal, phase IV clinical trial comparing the efficacy and safety of fixed-dose ASAQ and AL for repeated treatment of uncomplicated malaria in children under 5 years at Nagongera Health Centre, Uganda. Participants were randomized to ASAQ or AL and all subsequent malaria episodes were treated with the same regimen. 413 children were enrolled and experienced a total of 6027 malaria episodes (mean 15; range, 1–26). For the first malaria episode, the PCR-corrected-cure rate for ASAQ (97.5%) was non-inferior to that for AL (97.0%; 95% CI [−0.028; 0.037]). PCR-corrected cure rates for subsequent malaria episodes that had over 100 cases (episodes 2–18), ranged from 88.1% to 98.9% per episode, with no clear difference between the treatment arms. Parasites were completely cleared by day 3 for all malaria episodes and gametocyte carriage was less than 1% by day 21. Fever clearance was faster in the ASAQ group for the first episode. Treatment compliance for subsequent episodes (only first dose administration observed) was close to 100%. Adverse events though common were similar between treatment arms and mostly related to the disease. Serious adverse events were uncommon, comparable between treatment arms and resolved spontaneously. Anemia and neutropenia occurred in <0.5% of cases per episode, abnormal liver function tests occurred in 0.3% to 1.4% of cases. Both regimens were safe and effective for repeated treatment of malaria.

Trial Registration

Current Controlled Trials NCT00699920     

APOBEC3G Variants and Protection against HIV-1 Infection in Burkina Faso

Studies on host factors, particularly the APOBEC3G gene, have previously found an association with AIDS progression in some populations and against some HIV-1 strains but not others. Our study had two main objectives: firstly, to screen a population from Burkina Faso for three variants of APOBEC3G previously described, and secondly to analyze the effect of these three variants and their haplotypes on HIV-1 infection with Circulating Recombinant Forms (CRFs) present in Burkina Faso. This case control study involved 708 seropositive and seronegative individuals. Genotyping was done by the TaqMan allelic discrimination method. Minor allele frequencies of rs6001417 (p<0.05), rs8177832 (P<0.05), and rs35228531 (P<0.001) were higher in seronegative subjects. The rs6001417 and rs8177832 SNPs were associated with HIV-1 infection in an additive model (P<0.01). Furthermore the SNP rs35228531 was also associated with HIV-1 infection in a dominant model (P<0.001). Odds ratio analysis of genotypes and alleles of the different APOBEC3G variants showed that there is a strong association between the minor genetic variants, genotype of the three SNPs, and HIV-1 status. Haplotype analysis demonstrated that rs6001417, rs8177832, and rs35228531 are in linkage disequilibrium. The haplotype GGT from the rs6001417, rs8177832 and rs35228531 respectively has a protective effect OR = 0.54 [0.43–0.68] with P<0.001. There was also associations between the haplotypes GGC OR = 1.6 [1.1;-2.3] P<0.05, and CGC OR = 5.21 [2.4–11.3] P<0.001, which increase the risk of infection by HIV-1 from almost two (2) to five (5) fold. This study demonstrates an association of rs6001417, rs8177832, and rs35228531 of APOBEC3G with HIV-1 infection in a population from Burkina Faso.     

Declining Wild Mushroom Recognition and Usage in Burkina Faso

Declining Wild Mushroom Recognition and Usage in Burkina Faso. Ethnomycological investigation was carried out in Burkina Faso, West Africa, using standardized interviews focused on 40 representative mushroom species assembled in a traveling herbarium (photographs plus preserved specimens). A total of 540 informants from 18 localities representing three main ethnic groups—Mòosé, Bobo, and Gouin—were interviewed, though the bulk of those interviewed were Mòosé (or Mossi) from the more populous central region of the country. Among the study species, as many as 24 were considered edible by the different ethnic groups; a few medicinal uses also were noted. The edibility of a common Chlorophyllum species is confirmed for the three ethnic groups. Mushroom nomenclature is not well developed in any of the three groups as evidenced by the fact that many mushrooms, including some common edible species, do not appear to have specific local names, but are instead simply referred to by a general term for “mushroom.” Preliminary observations about inter–ethnic variation in recognition, naming, and appreciation of mushrooms are noted. Older people recognized many more mushroom species than did younger people, and women appeared to be slightly more knowledgeable about mushrooms than men. The most important finding is that the gathering and consumption of wild edible mushrooms seems to be dying out in Burkina Faso, especially in the central part of the country, apparently because of declining mushroom populations resulting from disappearing forest habitats. NOTE TO VENDOR: In place of the corresponding author, send proof to this paper’s editor, David Aroro, maxfun @cruzio.com     

Climate,Cattle Rearing Systems and African Animal Trypanosomosis Risk in Burkina Faso

Background

In sub-Saharan countries infested by tsetse flies, African Animal Trypanosomosis (AAT) is considered as the main pathological constraint to cattle breeding. Africa has known a strong climatic change and its population was multiplied by four during the last half-century. The aim of this study was to characterize the impact of production practices and climate on tsetse occurrence and abundance, and the associated prevalence of AAT in Burkina Faso.

Methodology/Principal Findings

Four sites were selected along a South-north transect of increasing aridity. The study combines parasitological and entomological surveys. For the parasitological aspect, blood samples were collected from 1,041 cattle selected through a stratified sampling procedure including location and livestock management system (long transhumance, short transhumance, sedentary). Parasitological and serological prevalence specific to livestock management systems show a gradual increase from the Sahelian to the Sudano-Guinean area (P<0.05). Livestock management system had also a significant impact on parasitological prevalence (P<0.05). Tsetse diversity, apparent densities and their infection rates overall decreased with aridity, from four species, an apparent density of 53.1 flies/trap/day and an infection rate of 13.7% to an absence at the northern edge of the transect, where the density and diversity of other biting flies were on the contrary highest (p<0.001).

Conclusions/Significance

The climatic pressure clearly had a negative impact on tsetse abundance and AAT risk. However, the persistency of tsetse habitats along the Mouhoun river loop maintains a high risk of cyclical transmission of T. vivax. Moreover, an “epidemic mechanical livestock trypanosomosis” cycle is likely to occur in the northern site, where trypanosomes are brought in by cattle transhuming from the tsetse infested area and are locally transmitted by mechanical vectors. In Burkina Faso, the impact of tsetse thus extends to a buffer area around their distribution belt, corresponding to the herd transhumance radius.     

Multivariate characterization of morphological traits in Burkina Faso sheep

A total of 6440 female sheep from Burkina Faso were scored for seven body measurements and four qualitative morphological traits. Sampling included the three main environmental areas and sheep breeds of Burkina Faso: the Sahel area (Burkina-Sahel sheep), the Sudan-Sahel area (Mossi sheep) and the Sudan area (Djallonké sheep). Canonical analyses showed that differences in body measurements between the Sudan and the Sudan-Sahel sheep were small even though most body traits showed higher average values in the Burkina-Sahel sheep: the shortest Mahalanobis distance was found between the Sudan and the Sudan-Sahel populations (1.54), whilst that between the Sudan and the Sahelian populations was the largest (7.88). Discriminant analysis showed that most Sudan (Djallonké) individuals (60.85%) were classified as Sudan-Sahel (Mossi) individuals whilst most Burkina-Sahel individuals were classified into their environmental area of sampling (89.46%). Correspondence analyses indicated that the Burkina-Sahel sheep population clustered together with dropping ears, black and brown colour patterns and presence of wattles, the Sudan sheep were closely associated with long hair and vertical and curled ears and that the Sudan-Sahel sheep did not have clear associations with qualitative phenotypic traits. At the morphological level, the Sudan-Sahel (Mossi) sheep population can be considered a geographical subpopulation belonging to the Djallonké breed, showing some particularities, namely larger body size, due to the particular environmental condition of the area in which it is managed and a continuous gene flow from Sahelian sheep, The information reported in this study will be the basis for the establishment of further characterization, conservation and selection strategies for Burkina Faso sheep.     

Multivariate characterization of morphological traits in Burkina Faso sheep

A total of 6440 female sheep from Burkina Faso were scored for seven body measurements and four qualitative morphological traits. Sampling included the three main environmental areas and sheep breeds of Burkina Faso: the Sahel area (Burkina-Sahel sheep), the Sudan-Sahel area (Mossi sheep) and the Sudan area (Djallonké sheep). Canonical analyses showed that differences in body measurements between the Sudan and the Sudan-Sahel sheep were small even though most body traits showed higher average values in the Burkina-Sahel sheep: the shortest Mahalanobis distance was found between the Sudan and the Sudan-Sahel populations (1.54), whilst that between the Sudan and the Sahelian populations was the largest (7.88). Discriminant analysis showed that most Sudan (Djallonké) individuals (60.85%) were classified as Sudan-Sahel (Mossi) individuals whilst most Burkina-Sahel individuals were classified into their environmental area of sampling (89.46%). Correspondence analyses indicated that the Burkina-Sahel sheep population clustered together with dropping ears, black and brown colour patterns and presence of wattles, the Sudan sheep were closely associated with long hair and vertical and curled ears and that the Sudan-Sahel sheep did not have clear associations with qualitative phenotypic traits. At the morphological level, the Sudan-Sahel (Mossi) sheep population can be considered a geographical subpopulation belonging to the Djallonké breed, showing some particularities, namely larger body size, due to the particular environmental condition of the area in which it is managed and a continuous gene flow from Sahelian sheep, The information reported in this study will be the basis for the establishment of further characterization, conservation and selection strategies for Burkina Faso sheep.     

Importance and seasonality of vegetable consumption and marketing in Burkina Faso

The use of vegetables in two rural communities in Burkina Faso is quantified through the use of food diaries kept by 13 households during one year. Interviews on preferences, field registration, and a market survey supplement the diaries. The use of wild species is concentrated onParkia biglobosa, Corchorus spp.,Adansonia digitata, andBombax costatum. At least five other wild species are mentioned as important but very rarely occur in the diet, indicating the usefulness of diaries compared to interviews.Capsicum frutescens, Abelmoschus esculentus, Allium cepa, andSolanum lycopersicon are the most commonly used cultivated species. Wild vegetables constitute 35% and 59% of the total vegetable consumption in the two communities. Most products are highly seasonal in supply and prices vary accordingly. Households compensate for the seasonality by drying products, but stocks are often insufficient and vegetable purchases needed. Many of the vegetable species studied should be integrated in agricultural research and extension programs.     

Severe malaria in Burkina Faso: urban and rural environment

The age distribution and the clinical patterns of severe malaria (SM) were compared in patients from urban areas characterized by relatively low transmission, and from rural areas where the mean inoculation rates are at least twenty fold higher. The mean age of the urban and rural patients was 4.8 +/- 3.0 and 2.2 +/- 1.9 respectively (p < 0.000). The prevalence of coma was higher in the urban subsample (53.6 vs 28.9%, p < 0.000) while that of severe anemia (hemoglobin < 5 g/dl) was higher in rural patients (47.4 vs 14.8%, p < 0.000). Our data, in line with previous results obtained comparing rural areas characterized by different inoculation rates, show that the epidemiological context influences the clinical presentation of SM.     

Perceptions, use and availability of woody plants among the Gourounsi in Burkina Faso

The present study was conducted in five villages around the Nazinga Game Ranch, Burkina Faso. Fifty informants of the Gourounsi ethnic group were used. Eighty-one useful woody species were identified, out of a total of 110 woody species in the area. Woody plant use was quantified as: edible fruits (28 species), vegetable sauce (22 species), firewood (33 species), construction (29 species) and medicine (64 species and 167 remedies). Further, species accumulation curves were used to estimate that more than 650 remedies for medicine are used in the area. The community's knowledge of plants was analysed in relation to age, gender, village of residence and amount of intercultural visits. The knowledge pattern was remarkably uniform, with only two variations: (1) men generally identified more edible fruit trees than women, and (2) one village reported more firewood species than the other four villages. The informants had a variety of opinions concerning the availability of useful plants, but the majority found the availability to be fine and 47% of the informants searched for useable products in the savanna on a daily basis. No correlation was found between an informant's impression of useful products availability and his/her frequency of visits into the savanna. The results show that the Gourounsi people live in intimate relation with the savanna surrounding their villages. They are aware of the environment and are willing to learn and adopt new conservation practices.     

Decisions of cattle herdsmen in Burkina Faso and optimal foraging models

Models of optimal foraging theory are used to evaluate the decisions of a sedentary herdsman and his family in Burkina Faso concerning the movement of his cattle from pasture to pasture. Generally, such models describe exploitation at the patch level, but are inadequate at higher levels. The herdsmen in the study area are generally sedentary, and their strategy of exploitation appears to be characterized by planning at least in terms of a whole day and minimizing daily travel time among fields. In conjuction with this conclusion a modified optimization model is proposed. We conclude that optimal foraging models are useful in interpreting and understanding the rules governing the movements of traditional West African herdsmen when so modified, but that more data are needed to develop and test these models further.     

Molecular epidemiology of Animal African Trypanosomosis in southwest Burkina Faso

BackgroundAnimal African Trypanosomosis (AAT) is a parasitic disease of livestock that has a major socio-economic impact in the affected areas. It is caused by several species of uniflagellate extracellular protists of the genus Trypanosoma mainly transmitted by tsetse flies: T. congolense, T. vivax and T. brucei brucei. In Burkina Faso, AAT hampers the proper economic development of the southwestern part of the country, which is yet the best watered area particularly conducive to agriculture and animal production. It was therefore important to investigate the extent of the infection in order to better control the disease. The objective of the present study was to assess the prevalence of trypanosome infections and collect data on the presence of tsetse flies.MethodsBuffy coat, Trypanosoma species-specific PCR, Indirect ELISA Trypanosoma sp and trypanolysis techniques were used on 1898 samples collected. An entomological survey was also carried out.ResultsThe parasitological prevalence of AAT was 1.1%, and all observed parasites were T. vivax. In contrast, the molecular prevalence was 23%, of which T. vivax was predominant (89%) followed by T. congolense (12.3%) and T. brucei s.l. (7.3%) with a sizable proportion as mixed infections (9.1%). T. brucei gambiense, responsible of sleeping sickness in humans, was not detected. The serological prevalence reached 49.7%. Once again T. vivax predominated (77.2%), but followed by T. brucei (14.7%) and T. congolense (8.1%). Seven samples, from six cattle and one pig, were found positive by trypanolysis. The density per trap of Glossina tachinoides and G. palpalis gambiensis was 1.2 flies.Conclusions/SignificanceOverall, our study showed a high prevalence of trypanosome infection in the area, pointing out an ongoing inadequacy of control measures.     

Improvement of cowpea productivity by rhizobial and mycorrhizal inoculation in Burkina Faso

Cowpea is one of the most important food legume crops in Burkina Faso. It is able to associate with arbuscular mycorrhizal fungi (AMF) and rhizobia. This dual symbiosis improves nitrogen and phosphorus nutrient uptake in cowpea. As the application of exotic inoculants frequently lacks positive responses in field experiments, this study set out to select well-adapted native symbiotic rhizobial and AMF strains. Soil samples were collected from six study sites in three different climatic zones of Burkina Faso to investigate their native symbiotic strains. Soil-extraction of native spores led to the identification of four AMF genera (Scutellospora, Gigaspora, Glomus and Entrophospora) by morpho-anatomical characterization. The two most effective cowpea fungal strains were selected after spore isolation from field-collected soils, multiplication on maize roots and inoculation on cowpea seedlings in a greenhouse experiment. Cowpea-nodulating rhizobial strains were trapped in the greenhouse by planting cowpea seeds in collected soil samples and the strains were characterized using molecular methods. This characterization led to the rhizobial isolates being classified in four clusters on the phylogenetic tree (using the Maximum-Likelihood Phylogenies method). All strains belonged to the Bradyrhizobium genus and most of them were included in the B. japonicum branch. Some groups were clearly distinct species already identified and may be new species. The two most effective strains for cowpea yield improvement in the field were selected after cowpea inoculation in a greenhouse experiment. The inoculation design in the field experiment consisted of four single inoculation treatments, either rhizobial or mycorrhizal, along with four dual inoculations, one treatment with chemical fertilizers, and one uninoculated control. The results showed that cowpea productivity was significatively improved by dual inoculation with native rhizobial and mycorrhizal strains, reaching the same level as the application of commonly used chemical fertilizers [Nitrogen, Phosphorus and Potassium fertilizers (NPK)]. In addition, dual inoculation resulted in the highest iron content in cowpea leaves.     

Environmental impacts of gold mining in Essakane site of Burkina Faso

In this study, environmental impacts on air, water, and soil pollution caused by the exploit of Essakane gold mine, which is located in North Eastern part of Burkina Faso were investigated. Analyses on drinking water were made in the laboratory to determine the concentration of essential chemicals used in gold mining. Dust fallouts have been measured to assess the level of air pollution. The results showed that exploiting of gold mine directly or indirectly contributes to air pollution in Essakane district. The use of chemicals such as cyanide (industrial gold mining) and mercury (artisanal gold mining) to obtain the gold from the ore constitutes a potential risk for the ecosystem, the local population's health, and livestock production. The results also showed that there is a significant degradation of natural landscape and topography of the soil by open-pits mining (industrial mine) and holes dug by artisanal miners.     

Reference Ranges of Cholesterol Sub-Fractions in Random Healthy Adults in Ouagadougou,Burkina Faso

In Burkina Faso, the values that serve as clinical chemistry reference ranges are those provided by European manufacturers’ insert sheets based on reference of the Western population. However, studies conducted so far in some African countries reported significant differences in normal laboratory ranges compared with those of the industrialized world. The aim of this study was to determine reference values of cholesterol fractions in apparently normal adults in Burkina Faso that could be used to better assess the risks related to cardiovascular diseases. Study population was 279 healthy subjects aged from 15 to 50 years including 139 men and 140 women recruited at the Regional Center of Blood Transfusion of Ouagadougou, capital city of Burkina Faso (West Africa). Exclusion criteria based on history and clinical examination were used for defining reference individuals. The dual-step precipitation of HDL cholesterol sub-fractions using dextran sulfate was performed according to the procedure described by Hirano. The medians were calculated and reference values were determined at 2.5^th and 97.5^th percentiles. The median and upper ranges for total cholesterol, LDL cholesterol, total HDL cholesterol and HDL2 cholesterol were observed to be higher in women in comparison to men (p <0.05). These reference ranges were similar to those derived from other African countries but lower than those recorded in France and in USA. This underscores the need for such comprehensible establishment of reference values for limited resources countries. Our study provides the first cholesterol sub-fractions (HDL2 and HDL3) reference ranges for interpretation of laboratory results for cardiovascular risk management in Burkina Faso.     

Occurrence of whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses in crops in Burkina Faso, and their serological detection and differentiation

Whitefly-transmitted geminiviruses were found to be associated with four diseases of crop plants in Burkina Faso: cassava mosaic, okra leaf curl, tobacco leaf curl and tomato yellow leaf curl. Tomato yellow leaf curl is an economically serious disease, reaching a high incidence in March, following a peak population of the vector whitefly, Bemisia tabaci, in December. Okra leaf curl is also a problem in the small area of okra grown in the dry season but is not important in the main period of okra production in the rainy season. The geminiviruses causing these four diseases, African cassava mosaic (ACMV), okra leaf curl (OLCV), tobacco leaf curl (TobLCV) and tomato yellow leaf curl (TYLCV) viruses, were each detected in field-collected samples by triple antibody sand-wich-ELISA with cross-reacting monoclonal antibodies (MAbs) to ACMV. Epitope profiles obtained by testing each virus isolate with panels of MAbs to ACMV, OLCV and Indian cassava mosaic virus enabled four viruses to be distinguished. ACMV and OLCV had similar but distinguishable profiles. The epitope profile of TobLCV was the same as that of one form of TYLCV (which may be the same virus) and was close to the profile of TYLCV from Sardinia. The other form of TYLCV reacted with several additional MAbs and had an epitope profile close to that of TYLCV from Senegal. Only minor variations within each of these four types of epitope profile were found among geminivirus isolates from Burkina Faso. Sida acuta is a wild host of OLCV.