Mammalian peroxisomes and reactive oxygen species

The central role of peroxisomes in the generation and scavenging of hydrogen peroxide has been well known ever since their discovery almost four decades ago. Recent studies have revealed their involvement in metabolism of oxygen free radicals and nitric oxide that have important functions in intra- and intercellular signaling. The analysis of the role of mammalian peroxisomes in a variety of physiological and pathological processes involving reactive oxygen species (ROS) is the subject of this review. The general characteristics of peroxisomes and their enzymes involved in the metabolism of ROS are briefly reviewed. An expansion of the peroxisomal compartment with proliferation of tubular peroxisomes is observed in cells exposed to UV irradiation and various oxidants and is apparently accompanied by upregulation of PEX genes. Significant reduction of peroxisomes and their enzymes is observed in inflammatory processes including infections, ischemia-reperfusion injury, and allograft rejection and seems to be related to the suppressive effect of tumor necrosis factor- on peroxisome function and peroxisome proliferator activated receptor-. Xenobiotic-induced proliferation of peroxisomes in rodents is accompanied by the formation of hepatic tumors, and evidently the imbalance in generation and decomposition of ROS plays an important role in this process. In PEX5^–/– knockout mice lacking functional peroxisomes severe alterations of mitochondria in various organs are observed which seem to be due to a generalized increase in oxidative stress confirming the important role of peroxisomes in homeostasis of ROS and the implications of its disturbances for cell pathology.     

Plant peroxisomes,reactive oxygen metabolism and nitric oxide

In plant cells, as in most eukaryotic organisms, peroxisomes are probably the major sites of intracellular H2O2 production, as a result of their essentially oxidative type of metabolism. Like mitochondria and chloroplasts, peroxisomes also produce superoxide radicals (O2*-) and there are, at least, two sites of superoxide generation: one in the organelle matrix, the generating system being xanthine oxidase, and another site in the peroxisomal membranes dependent on NAD(P)H. In peroxisomal membranes, three integral polypeptides (PMPs) with molecular masses of 18, 29, and 32 kDa have been shown to generate O2*- radicals. Besides catalase, several antioxidative systems have been demonstrated in plant peroxisomes, including different superoxide dismutases, the four enzymes of the ascorbate-glutathione cycle plus ascorbate and glutathione, and three NADP-dependent dehydrogenases. A CuZn-SOD and two Mn-SODs have been purified and characterized from different types of plant peroxisomes. The presence of the enzyme nitric oxide synthase (NOS) and its reaction product, nitric oxide (NO*), has been recently demonstrated in plant peroxisomes. Different experimental evidence has suggested that peroxisomes have a ROS-mediated cellular function in leaf senescence and in stress situations induced by xenobiotics and heavy metals. Peroxisomes could also have a role in plant cells as a source of signal molecules like NO*, O2*- radicals, H2O2, and possibly S-nitrosoglutathione (GSNO). It seems reasonable to think that a signal molecule-producing function similar to that postulated for plant peroxisomes could also be performed by human, animal and yeast peroxisomes, where research on oxy radicals, antioxidants and nitric oxide is less advanced than in plant peroxisomes.     

Physiology of pepper fruit and the metabolism of antioxidants: chloroplasts,mitochondria and peroxisomes

Background and Aims Pepper (Capsicum annuum) contains high levels of antioxidants, such as vitamins A and C and flavonoids. However, information on the role of these beneficial compounds in the physiology of pepper fruit remains scarce. Recent studies have shown that antioxidants in ripe pepper fruit play a key role in responses to temperature changes, and the redox state at the time of harvest affects the nutritional value for human consumption. In this paper, the role of antioxidant metabolism of pepper fruit during ripening and in the response to low temperature is addressed, paying particular attention to ascorbate, NADPH and the superoxide dismutase enzymatic system. The participation of chloroplasts, mitochondria and peroxisomes in the ripening process is also investigated.Scope and Results Important changes occur at a subcellular level during ripening of pepper fruit. Chloroplasts turn into chromoplasts, with drastic conversion of their metabolism, and the role of the ascorbate–glutathione cycle is essential. In mitochondria from red fruits, higher ascorbate peroxidase (APX) and Mn-SOD activities are involved in avoiding the accumulation of reactive oxygen species in these organelles during ripening. Peroxisomes, whose antioxidant capacity at fruit ripening is substantially affected, display an atypical metabolic pattern during this physiological stage. In spite of these differences observed in the antioxidative metabolism of mitochondria and peroxisomes, proteomic analysis of these organelles, carried out by 2-D electrophoresis and MALDI-TOF/TOF and provided here for the first time, reveals no changes between the antioxidant metabolism from immature (green) and ripe (red) fruits.Conclusions Taken together, the results show that investigation of molecular and enzymatic antioxidants from cell compartments, especially chloroplasts, mitochondria and peroxisomes, is a useful tool to study the physiology of pepper fruit, particularly in the context of expanding their shelf-life after harvest and in maintaining their nutritional value.     

Antioxidative enzymes from chloroplasts, mitochondria, and peroxisomes during leaf senescence of nodulated pea plants

In this work the influence of the nodulation of pea (Pisum sativum L.) plants on the oxidative metabolism of different leaf organelles from young and senescent plants was studied. Chloroplasts, mitochondria, and peroxisomes were purified from leaves of nitrate-fed and Rhizobium leguminosarum-nodulated pea plants at two developmental stages (young and senescent plants). In these cell organelles, the activity of the ascorbate-glutathione cycle enzymes ascorbate peroxidase (APX), monodehydroascorbate reductase (MDHAR), dehydroascorbate reductase (DHAR), and glutathione reductase (GR), and the ascorbate and glutathione contents were determined. In addition, the total superoxide dismutase (SOD) activity, the pattern of mitochondrial and peroxisomal NADPH-generating dehydrogenases, some of the peroxisomal photorespiratory enzymes, the glyoxylate cycle and oxidative metabolism enzymes were also analysed in these organelles. Results obtained on the metabolism of cell organelles indicate that nodulation with Rhizobium accelerates senescence in pea leaves. A considerable decrease of the ascorbate content of chloroplasts, mitochondria, and peroxisomes was found, and in these conditions a metabolic conversion of leaf peroxisomes into glyoxysomes, characteristic of leaf senescence, took place.     

Redox signaling (cross-talk) from and to mitochondria involves mitochondrial pores and reactive oxygen species

This review highlights the important role of redox signaling between mitochondria and NADPH oxidases. Besides the definition and general importance of redox signaling, the cross-talk between mitochondrial and Nox-derived reactive oxygen species (ROS) is discussed on the basis of 4 different examples. In the first model, angiotensin-II is discussed as a trigger for NADPH oxidase activation with subsequent ROS-dependent opening of mitochondrial ATP-sensitive potassium channels leading to depolarization of mitochondrial membrane potential followed by mitochondrial ROS formation and respiratory dysfunction. This concept was supported by observations that ethidium bromide-induced mitochondrial damage suppressed angiotensin-II-dependent increase in Nox1 and oxidative stress. In another example hypoxia was used as a stimulator of mitochondrial ROS formation and by using pharmacological and genetic inhibitors, a role of mitochondrial ROS for the induction of NADPH oxidase via PKC? was demonstrated. The third model was based on cell death by serum withdrawal that promotes the production of ROS in human 293T cells by stimulating both the mitochondria and Nox1. By superior molecular biological methods the authors showed that mitochondria were responsible for the fast onset of ROS formation followed by a slower but long-lasting oxidative stress condition based on the activation of an NADPH oxidase (Nox1) in response to the fast mitochondrial ROS formation. Finally, a cross-talk between mitochondria and NADPH oxidases (Nox2) was shown in nitroglycerin-induced tolerance involving the mitochondrial permeability transition pore and ATP-sensitive potassium channels. The use of these redox signaling pathways as pharmacological targets is briefly discussed.     

Redox conditions specify the proteins synthesised by isolated chloroplasts and mitochondria

In chloroplasts and mitochondria isolated from pea leaves, ³⁵S-methionine incorporation reveals that different subsets of proteins are selected for synthesis in the presence of the external redox reagents ferricyanide, ascorbate, duroquinol, dithiothreitol and dithionite, and in the presence of different electron transport inhibitors in the light (in chloroplasts) or with respiratory substrates (in mitochondria). Redox state of specific electron carriers may therefore regulate expression of specific genes in chloroplasts and mitochondria. The results are consistent with the hypothesis that chloroplast and mitochondrial genomes encode proteins whose synthesis must be regulated by electron transport in photosynthesis and respiration.     

植物线粒体、活性氧与信号转导

活性氧(ROS)的产生是需氧代谢不可避免的结果。在植物细胞中,线粒体电子传递链(ETC)的复合物Ⅰ和Ⅱ是ROS产生的主要的部位。交替氧化酶和可能的内源鱼藤酮不敏感的NADH脱氢酶通过保持ETc的相对氧化状态限制线粒体产生ROS。线粒体基质中的抗氧化酶系统与小分子量的抗氧化剂一道起ROS的解毒作用。ROS除了引起细胞的伤害外,在植物中还能够作为一种普遍存在的信号分子起作用。在低浓度时,ROS能诱导防御基因的表达和引起适应反应;在高浓度时,引起细胞死亡。一氧化氮是植物合成和释放的一种气体,也可作为信号分子调节植物的生长和发育。     

Calcium, mitochondria and oxygen sensing in the pulmonary circulation

A key event in hypoxic pulmonary vasoconstriction (HPV) is the elevation in smooth muscle intracellular Ca2+ concentration. However, there is controversy concerning the source of this Ca2+, the signal transduction pathways involved, and the identity of the oxygen sensor. Although there is wide support for the hypothesis that hypoxia elicits depolarisation via inhibition of K+ channels, and thus promotes Ca2+ entry through L-type channels, a significant number of studies are inconsistent with this mechanism being either the sole or even major means by which Ca2+ is elevated during HPV. There is strong evidence that intracellular Ca2+ stores play a critical role, and voltage-independent Ca2+ entry mechanisms including capacitative Ca2+ entry (CCE) have also been implicated. There is renewed interest in the role of mitochondria in HPV, both in terms of modulators of Ca2+ homeostasis per se and as oxygen sensors. There is however considerable uncertainty concerning the mechanisms involved in the latter, with proposals for changes in redox couples and both an increase and decrease in mitochondrial production of reactive oxygen species (ROS). In this article we review the evidence for and against involvement of such mechanisms in HPV, and propose a model for the regulation of intracellular [Ca2+] in pulmonary artery during hypoxia in which the mitochondria play a central role.     

叶绿体光合代谢中活性氧的产生与清除

有氧代谢不可避免产生活性氧(ROS),叶绿体的PSI和PSII反应中心均是ROS产生的主要位点。叶绿体产生的ROS主要有超氧阴离子(O2-)、过氧化氢(H2O2)、羟自由基(.OH)和单线氧(1O2),其中在PSI产生的O2-将进一步产生H2O2和.OH,而1O2产生在PSII。正常生理代谢条件下,叶绿体内抗氧化系统和光能吸收利用的调节保持活性氧产生和消灭的平衡,不会影响植物的正常生理功能。     

Crosstalk between mitochondria and peroxisomes

Mitochondria and peroxisomes are small ubiquitous organelles. They both play major roles in cell metabolism,especially in terms of fatty acid metabolism,reactive oxygen species(ROS) production,and ROS scavenging,and it is now clear that they metabolically interact with each other. These two organelles share some properties,such as great plasticity and high potency to adapt their form and number according to cell requirements. Their functions are connected,and any alteration in the function of mitochondria may induce changes inperoxisomal physiology. The objective of this paper was to highlight the interconnection and the crosstalk existing between mitochondria and peroxisomes. Special emphasis was placed on the best known connections between these organelles:origin,structure,and metabolic interconnections.     

Association of Cu,Zn-type superoxide dismutase with mitochondria and peroxisomes

The subcellular localization of Cu,Zn-type superoxide dismutase (Cu,Zn-SOD) was investigated in rat tissues and cultured human fibroblasts. Subcellular fractionation, Nycodenz gradient centrifugation, and immunoblot analysis using specific antibodies showed that Cu,Zn-SOD was localized in cytosol, mitochondria, and peroxisomes of rat liver and brain. Treatment of highly purified mitochondria from rat liver with either Chaps or Triton X-100 released the bound Cu,Zn-SOD into supernatant fraction. Depolarization of mitochondria by inorganic phosphate and Ca(2+) released both Cu,Zn-SOD and cytochrome c from mitochondria. Digitonin also released Cu,Zn-SOD but not cytochrome c from mitochondria. Confocal immunofluorescence microscopy revealed that anti-Cu,Zn-SOD antibody in cultured human fibroblasts was found to colocalize with antibodies to Mn-SOD and PMP-70, markers of mitochondria and peroxisomes, respectively. Incubation of human Cu,Zn-SOD with purified mitochondria resulted in their association. These results indicate that Cu,Zn-SOD associates with mitochondria and peroxisomes in various cell types such as those in brain, liver, and skin.     

Lack of oxygen sensing by mitochondria in platelets.

The range over which cells are sensitive to changes in oxygen concentration remains uncertain. Wilson and colleagues [Wilson, D.F. (1994) Med. Sci. Sports Exerc. 26, 37-43] have suggested that cytochrome oxidase is sensitive to oxygen concentrations below about 40 microM, but proposed that this sensitivity is obscured in intact cells because an increase in reduction state of cytochrome c acts to maintain oxygen consumption. We have tested this hypothesis in platelets, which are small cells (2-4 micrometer diameter, < 0.5 micrometer thick) that do not decrease their rate of oxygen consumption until oxygen concentrations fall below 2.5 microM. Contrary to the expectations of the hypothesis, the reduction state of cytochrome c, the concentration of NADH and the rate of glycolytic output are not changed as oxygen concentration declines from 40 microM down to 5 microM. Therefore, we conclude that at least some cell types contain mitochondria that are not capable of sensing oxygen above 5 microM by the mechanism proposed by Wilson and colleagues.     

Nucleotide receptor signalling and the generation of reactive oxygen species

Elevated levels of extracellular nucleotides are present at sites of inflammation, platelet degranulation and cellular damage or lysis. These extracellular nucleotides can lead to the activation of purinergic (nucleotide) receptors on various leukocytes, including monocytes, macrophages, eosinophils, and neutrophils. In turn, nucleotide receptor activation has been linked to increased cellular production and release of multiple inflammatory mediators, including superoxide anion, nitric oxide and other reactive oxygen species (ROS). In the present review, we will summarize the evidence that extracellular nucleotides can facilitate the generation of multiple ROS by leukocytes. In addition, we will discuss several potential mechanisms by which nucleotide-enhanced ROS production may occur. Delineation of these mechanisms is important for understanding the processes associated with nucleotide-induced antimicrobial activities, cell signalling, apoptosis, and pathology. This work was supported by National Institutes of Health Grants HL56396 and AI50500. The first author was supported by the Hematology Training Program NIH 5 T32 HL07899 at the University of Wisconsin.     

Type II NAD(P)H dehydrogenases are targeted to mitochondria and chloroplasts or peroxisomes in Arabidopsis thaliana

We found that four type II NAD(P)H dehydrogenases (ND) in Arabidopsis are targeted to two locations in the cell; NDC1 was targeted to mitochondria and chloroplasts, while NDA1, NDA2 and NDB1 were targeted to mitochondria and peroxisomes. Targeting of NDC1 to chloroplasts as well as mitochondria was shown using in vitro and in vivo uptake assays and dual targeting of NDC1 to plastids relies on regions in the mature part of the protein. Accumulation of NDA type dehydrogenases to peroxisomes and mitochondria was confirmed using Western blot analysis on highly purified organelle fractions. Targeting of ND proteins to mitochondria and peroxisomes is achieved by two separate signals, a C-terminal signal for peroxisomes and an N-terminal signal for mitochondria.     

利用荧光探针直接测定线粒体活性氧的形成

目的与方法：根据荧光探针－还原型二氯荧光素（2‘,7‘-dichlorodihydrofluorescin,DCFH)可与活性氧（reactive oxygen species,ROS)反应生成荧光物一氧化型二氯荧光素（2‘,7‘-dichlorofluorecin,DCF)的原理,设计了利用荧光分光光度计直接定量检测线粒体活性氧生成并可观察在各种实验条件下线粒体活性氧产生动态变化的方法。结果与结论：线粒体在态4呼吸状态下,DCF的荧光强度随时间呈线性增加,表明活性氧以恒定速率产生。将荧光强度随时间变化的数据点拟合,线性回归直线斜率与活性氧产生的速率呈正比,测定中加入叠氮钠和丙二酸可分别使线粒体活性氧产生增加和减少。DCF荧光强度增加速率与线粒体浓度在一定范围内呈线性关系。复管实验表明重复性良好。