新基因Restin的克隆及比较生物学分析

采用PCR介导的减法杂交技术,从全反式维甲酸诱导的HL-60细胞中克隆得到一新基因,该基因编码219个氨基酸.借助生物信息学分析技术,发现该基因表达蛋白与神经细胞生长抑制因子(Necdin)的功能结构域高度同源(49%),均为碱性蛋白,命名为Restin(细胞静息相关蛋白).更有意义的是,同源搜索发现Restin,Necdin和Mages(黑色素瘤相关抗原家族)为同一蛋白家族,提示Restin和Mages是两类具有某种联系而功能又不同的蛋白质. 对所有这些蛋白进行综合分析发现,它们分别属于两个不同的亚家族,碱性蛋白家族和酸性蛋白家族,其中Restin,Necdin和Mage D1含有碱性同源结构域(理论pI为8.6～10.1), 主要在终末分化细胞中表达,在肿瘤组织极少表达或不表达,实验结果表明,Necdin可以与转录因子(E2F1)及p53相互作用,从而抑制细胞增殖,推测此类蛋白可能与细胞静息状态相关;而Mage A,C等表现为酸性同源结构域(理论pI为4.2～4.9),主要在肿瘤组织和胎儿组织中表达,推测此类蛋白可能与细胞增值有关.这两类蛋白是否构成一对与细胞周期调控相关的正负系统值得进一步深入研究.     

肌足蛋白的研究进展

肌足蛋白(myopodin)是新近发现的突足蛋白(synaptopodin)家族的第二个成员。除了突足蛋白外,它和其他已知的蛋白质没有明显的同源关系。肌足蛋白可以直接与肌动蛋白相互作用,因此它也是一种结构蛋白。研究发现,肌足蛋白在细胞中的分布受到细胞分化及胁迫的调控,并且它在细胞核中的定位对抑制膀胱癌有一定的作用;同时发现肌足蛋白基因在细胞中的部分或全部缺失与前列腺癌的发生有关,因此它也有可能作为前列腺癌的临床检测标记。     

受体相互作用蛋白3——细胞凋亡与坏死的调节阀

综述了受体相互作用蛋白(RIPs)蛋白结构和RIP3调控细胞凋亡与坏死机制的研究进展．受体相互作用蛋白3(receptor-interacting protein 3, RIP3)是丝/苏氨酸蛋白激酶家族成员之一,该蛋白质家族包含一类高度保守的丝/苏氨酸激酶结构域．RIP家族激酶作为细胞应激传感分子,在调控细胞凋亡、细胞坏死和存活通路中发挥重要作用．近年发现,RIP3参与肿瘤坏死因子TNFα诱导的细胞程序化坏死的生物学过程．认识RIP3调控TNFα诱导的细胞凋亡与坏死不同死亡途径转换的分子机制,有助于发现肿瘤治疗的新策略．     

SUN结构域家族蛋白研究进展

SUN(Sad-1,UNC-84)结构域家族蛋白是一种广泛分布于酵母、线虫等真核生物的膜蛋白,主要定位于细胞核膜以及内质网。由于在酵母中发现Sad-1突变后的表型与线虫中UNC-84突变的表型一致,并且两者C-端有近一半的同源相似性,因此得名SUN结构域,其家族成员也都具有SUN结构域。根据SUN结构域所在家族成员中蛋白质一级序列位置的不同,分为经典及非经典家族蛋白,经典的家族蛋白一般通过与KASH(Klarsicht、ANC-1、Syne homology)蛋白相互作用行使功能。越来越多的研究结果表明,SUN蛋白可能参与核膜锚定、核膜重塑、细胞迁移和DNA损伤修复等过程,其形成的复合体与人类进行性肌营养不良等疾病的发生发展也有紧密联系。该文就SUN家族各成员蛋白的结构特性以及功能特点的研究进展进行简要综述。     

Oct-4/Sox-2 协同调控下游基因表达的分子机制

Oct-4属POU家族蛋白,是一类在动物早期胚胎发育过程中起重要作用的转录因子,参与维持细胞的全能性及未分化状态。Oct-4蛋白的主要结构特征为具有POU家族特有的保守结构域（POUS）和POU同源异型结构域（POUHD）,这两个结构域可与DNA上特定区域形成双向结合,进而对基因转录进行调控。Sox-2是另一种转录因子,其HMG结构域可结合在DNA的特定序列上,并可通过与Oct-4的POUs结构域之间的蛋白质．蛋白质相互作用形成POU／HMG／DNA三元复合体以调控下游靶基因的表达。文章就POU家族成员Oct-4和HMG-box家族成员Sox-2在动物早期胚胎发育中调控部分下游基因表达的分子机制进行了概述。     

PDZ支架蛋白PDZK1通过PDZ1与PDZ3结构域与磷脂酶Cβ2羧基末端PDZ结合模块相互作用（英文）

磷脂酶Cβ(PLCβ)在G蛋白偶联受体(GPCR)介导的细胞信号转导中发挥重要作用.通过水解磷脂酰肌醇4,5二磷酸(PIP2),磷脂酶Cβ可以产生3种重要的第二信使分子:二乙酰甘油(DAG)、三磷酸肌醇(IP3)和质子.在果蝇中,磷脂酶Cβ通过它的羧基末端盘状同源区域结合模块(PBM)与盘状同源区域(PDZ)支架蛋白—失活无后电位D蛋白(INAD)相互作用,从而调节果蝇的光信号传导.在哺乳动物中,磷脂酶Cβ家族有4个亚型,每1个亚型的羧基末端都有1个典型的盘状同源区域结合模块.这一结构特点提示我们,磷脂酶Cβ可能通过其羧基末端的盘状同源区域结合模块与盘状同源区域支架蛋白相互作用,进而调节它们自身的细胞定位和功能.然而,目前仍对哺乳动物磷脂酶Cβ家族的盘状同源区域结合蛋白知之甚少.本文运用分析型凝胶过滤和等温滴定量热技术,系统地研究了不同磷脂酶Cβ亚型的羧基末端盘状同源区域结合模块与不同盘状同源区域蛋白质的结合.结果表明,磷脂酶Cβ2的羧基末端盘状同源区域结合模块,可以特异地与含有4个盘状同源区域的支架蛋白—盘状同源区域蛋白1(PDZK1)以2∶1的方式相互结合.进一步的测定显示,磷脂酶Cβ2羧基末端盘状同源区域结合模块在盘状同源区域蛋白1上的结合位点为第1和第3个盘状同源区域,而它们与磷脂酶Cβ2的解离常数分别为11.8±3.4μmol/L和33.3±8.7μmol/L.     

PDZ支架蛋白 PDZK1通过PDZ1与PDZ3结构域与磷脂酶Cβ2羧基末端PDZ结合模块相互作用

磷脂酶C β (PLCβ)在G蛋白偶联受体 (GPCR)介导的细胞信号转导中发挥重要作用. 通过水解磷脂酰肌醇4,5二磷酸 (PIP2),磷脂酶C β可以产生3种重要的第二信使分子：二乙酰甘油 (DAG)、三磷酸肌醇 (IP3)和质子. 在果蝇中,磷脂酶C β通过它的羧基末端盘状同源区域结合模块 (PBM)与盘状同源区域 (PDZ)支架蛋白-失活无后电位D蛋白 (INAD)相互作用,从而调节果蝇的光信号传导 . 在哺乳动物中,磷脂酶C β家族有4个亚型,每1个亚型的羧基末端都有1个典型的盘状同源区域结合模块. 这一结构特点提示我们,磷脂酶C β可能通过其羧基末端的盘状同源区域结合模块与盘状同源区域支架蛋白相互作用,进而调节它们自身的细胞定位和功能. 然而,目前仍对哺乳动物磷脂酶C β家族的盘状同源区域结合蛋白知之甚少. 本文运用分析型凝胶过滤和等温滴定量热技术,系统地研究了不同磷脂酶Cβ亚型的羧基末端盘状同源区域结合模块与不同盘状同源区域蛋白质的结合. 结果表明,磷脂酶Cβ2的羧基末端盘状同源区域结合模块,可以特异地与含有4个盘状同源区域的支架蛋白-盘状同源区域蛋白1 (PDZK1）以2∶1的方式相互结合. 进一步的测定显示,磷脂酶C β2羧基末端盘状同源区域结合模块在盘状同源区域蛋白1上的结合位点为第1和第3个盘状同源区域,而它们与磷脂酶Cβ2的解离常数分别为11.8±3.4 μmol/L 和33.3±8.7 μmol/L.     

TRAF4的结构与生物学功能

TRAF(TNF receptor associated factor)家族蛋白是一类具有相同C末端保守结构域的细胞内接头蛋白,能够与包括TNF受体在内的多种受体蛋白相互作用传递信号并因此得名,目前已经发现了7种TRAF家族蛋白。TRAF4是TRAF家族蛋白中最古老的成员之一,最早在乳腺癌的转移淋巴结中发现,在多种实体肿瘤组织中存在高表达和亚细胞定位的异常。与其他TRAF家族蛋白主要参与免疫和炎症反应不同,TRAF4在免疫中的作用非常有限,目前其已知功能主要体现在胚胎发育、细胞极性、凋亡以及活性氧生成调节等方面。     

IRSp53和MIM同源结构域IMD相互作用蛋白质的鉴定

IRSp53(胰岛素受体酪氨酸激酶底物)和MIM(肿瘤转移消失蛋白)的同源结构域(IMD结构域)在IR-Sp53/MIM家族调控肌动蛋白动态变化的过程中起重要作用.IMD结构域具有使肌动蛋白纤维成束的活性,与小分子GTPase家族Racl也存在相互作用.然而,IMD结构域是否存在其它相互作用蛋白并不清楚.本研究利用GST pull down技术结合质谱分析从大鼠小脑中筛选IMD结构域的相互作用蛋白,得到了几个候选蛋白.其中,神经发育中下调蛋白NEDD9与IRSp53及MIM在小脑中存在类似的分布,体外实验进一步证明了两者之间的相互作用,暗示NEDD9是一种新的IMD结构域相互作用蛋白质.     

细胞周期监控点蛋白Rad9与非同源末端连接修复蛋白Ku70的相互作用研究

Rad9是一种重要的细胞周期监控点调控蛋白．越来越多的证据显示,Rad9也可与多种DNA损伤修复通路中的蛋白质相互作用,并调节其功能,在DNA损伤修复中发挥重要作用．非同源末端连接修复是DNA双链断裂的一条重要修复途径．Ku70、Ku80和DNA依赖的蛋白激酶催化亚基(DNA-PKcs)共同组成DNA依赖的蛋白激酶复合物(DNA-PK),在非同源末端修复连接中起重要作用．本研究中,检测到Rad9与Ku70有直接的物理相互作用和功能相互作用．我们在不同的细胞模型中发现,Rad9基因敲除、Rad9蛋白去除或Rad9表达降低会导致非同源末端连接效率明显下降．已有的研究表明,DNA损伤可导致细胞中Ku70与染色质结合增加及DNA-PKcs激酶活性增强．我们的结果显示,与野生小鼠细胞相比,Rad9基因敲除的小鼠细胞中, DNA损伤诱导的上述效应均减弱．综上所述,我们的研究首次报道了Rad9与非同源末端连接修复蛋白Ku70间有相互作用,并提示Rad9可通过调节Ku70/Ku80/DNA-PKcs复合物功能参与非同源末端连接修复．     

The dynamin superfamily: universal membrane tubulation and fission molecules?

Dynamins are large GTPases that belong to a protein superfamily that, in eukaryotic cells, includes classical dynamins, dynamin-like proteins, OPA1, Mx proteins, mitofusins and guanylate-binding proteins/atlastins. They are involved in many processes including budding of transport vesicles, division of organelles, cytokinesis and pathogen resistance. With sequenced genomes from Homo sapiens, Drosophila melanogaster, Caenorhabditis elegans, yeast species and Arabidopsis thaliana, we now have a complete picture of the members of the dynamin superfamily from different organisms. Here, we review the superfamily of dynamins and their related proteins, and propose that a common mechanism leading to membrane tubulation and/or fission could encompass their many varied functions.     

Evidence that dystroglycan is associated with dynamin and regulates endocytosis

Disruption of the dystroglycan gene in humans and mice leads to muscular dystrophies and nervous system defects including malformation of the brain and defective synaptic transmission. To identify proteins that interact with dystroglycan in the brain we have used immunoaffinity purification followed by mass spectrometry (LC/MS-MS) and found that the GTPase dynamin 1 is a novel dystroglycan-associated protein. The beta-dystroglycan-dynamin 1 complex also included alpha-dystroglycan and Grb2. Overlay assays indicated that dynamin interacts directly with dystroglycan, and immunodepletion showed that only a pool of dynamin is associated with dystroglycan. Dystroglycan was associated and colocalized immunohistochemically with dynamin 1 in the central nervous system in the outer plexiform layer of retina where photoreceptor terminals are found. Endocytosis in neurons is both constitutive, as in non-neural cells, and regulated by neural activity. To assess the function of dystroglycan in the former, we have assayed transferrin uptake in fibroblastic cells differentiated from embryonic stem cells null for both dystroglycan alleles. In wild-type cells, dystroglycan formed a complex with dynamin and codistributed with cortactin at membrane ruffles, which are organelles implicated in endocytosis. Dystroglycan-null cells had a significantly greater transferrin uptake, a process well known to require dynamin. Expression of dystroglycan in null cells by infection with an adenovirus containing dystroglycan reduced transferrin uptake to levels seen in wild-type embryonic stem cells. These data suggest that dystroglycan regulates endocytosis possibly as a result of its interaction with dynamin.     

Dynamin architecture--from monomer to polymer

Dynamins form a family of eukaryotic and prokaryotic proteins involved in membrane fission, fusion and restructuring. They have complex mechanisms of self-assembly, which are coupled to the tubulation and destabilization of lipid bilayers. Recent structural data has revolutionized our understanding and is now yielding detailed insights into dynamin structure, from monomer through to polymer. Traditional division of the dynamin subunit into GTPase domain, middle domain and GTPase effector domain based on sequence alignments and biochemistry is not supported by recent structural data. A unified model of dynamin architecture is presented here, based on observation that the basic dynamin fold is conserved across evolutionary kingdoms.     

Three Dynamin-Encoding Genes Are Differentially Expressed in Developing Rat Brain

Abstract: Dynamin proteins are members of a recently described family of GTPases involved in receptor-mediated processes. To date, three different dynamin-encoding genes have been identified in mammalian tissues. Dynamin I is expressed only in neurons, whereas dynamin II is ubiquitously expressed. A third isoform, dynamin III, was originally isolated from a rat testis cDNA library and shown to be testis-specific. However, here we report the cloning and characterization of dynamin III from brain and lung, demonstrating a more extended pattern of expression for this isoform. In addition, we have investigated the temporal pattern of expression of these three genes during brain development. We find that both dynamin I and dynamin III mRNA levels are up-regulated during embryogenesis, whereas dynamin II mRNA levels remain unchanged. From these results, we conclude that dynamin III is not a testis-specific isoform and, furthermore, that rat brain expresses three different dynamin-encoding genes that are differentially regulated during development. Therefore, this large isoform diversity of dynamin proteins in brain predicts a significant complexity in the understanding of dynamin-based processes in this tissue.     

SH3 Domains Differentially Stimulate Distinct Dynamin I Assembly Modes and G Domain Activity

Dynamin I is a highly regulated GTPase enzyme enriched in nerve terminals which mediates vesicle fission during synaptic vesicle endocytosis. One regulatory mechanism involves its interactions with proteins containing Src homology 3 (SH3) domains. At least 30 SH3 domain-containing proteins bind dynamin at its proline-rich domain (PRD). Those that stimulate dynamin activity act by promoting its oligomerisation. We undertook a systematic parallel screening of 13 glutathione-S-transferase (GST)-tagged endocytosis-related SH3 domains on dynamin binding, GTPase activity and oligomerisation. No correlation was found between dynamin binding and their potency to stimulate GTPase activity. There was limited correlation between the extent of their ability to stimulate dynamin activity and the level of oligomerisation, indicating an as yet uncharacterised allosteric coupling of the PRD and G domain. We examined the two variants, dynamin Iab and Ibb, which differ in the alternately splice middle domain α2 helix. They responded differently to the panel of SH3s, with the extent of stimulation between the splice variants varying greatly between the SH3s. This study reveals that SH3 binding can act as a heterotropic allosteric regulator of the G domain via the middle domain α2 helix, suggesting an involvement of this helix in communicating the PRD-mediated allostery. This indicates that SH3 binding both stabilises multiple conformations of the tetrameric building block of dynamin, and promotes assembly of dynamin-SH3 complexes with distinct rates of GTP hydrolysis.     

Biogenesis of lipid droplets--how cells get fatter

Lipid droplets are discrete organelles present in most cell types and organisms including bacteria, yeast, plants, insects and animals. Long considered as passive storage deposits, recent cell biology, proteomic and lipidomic analysis show that lipid droplets are dynamic organelles involved in multiple cellular functions. They have a central function in lipid distribution to different membrane-bound organelles and serve not only as main reservoirs of neutral lipids such as triglycerides and cholesterol but in addition, contain structural proteins, proteins involved in lipid synthesis and transmembrane proteins. A detailed model for how transmembrane proteins such as SNARE proteins can exist in lipid droplets is proposed.     

Structural/functional homology between the bacterial and eukaryotic cytoskeletons

Structural proteins are now known to be as necessary for controlling cell division and cell shape in prokaryotes as they are in eukaryotes. Bacterial ParM and MreB not only have atomic structures that resemble eukaryotic actin and form similar filaments, but they are also equivalent in function: the assembly of ParM drives intracellular motility and MreB maintains the shape of the cell. FtsZ resembles tubulin in structure and in its dynamic assembly, and is similarly controlled by accessory proteins. Bacterial MinD and eukaryotic dynamin appear to have similar functions in membrane control. In dividing eukaryotic organelles of bacterial origin, bacterial and eukaryotic proteins work together.     

Disruption of a Dynamin Homologue Affects Endocytosis, Organelle Morphology, and Cytokinesis in Dictyostelium discoideum

The identification and functional characterization of Dictyostelium discoideum dynamin A, a protein composed of 853 amino acids that shares up to 44% sequence identity with other dynamin-related proteins, is described. Dynamin A is present during all stages of D. discoideum development and is found predominantly in the cytosolic fraction and in association with endosomal and postlysosomal vacuoles. Overexpression of the protein has no adverse effect on the cells, whereas depletion of dynamin A by gene-targeting techniques leads to multiple and complex phenotypic changes. Cells lacking a functional copy of dymA show alterations of mitochondrial, nuclear, and endosomal morphology and a defect in fluid-phase uptake. They also become multinucleated due to a failure to complete normal cytokinesis. These pleiotropic effects of dynamin A depletion can be rescued by complementation with the cloned gene. Morphological studies using cells producing green fluorescent protein-dynamin A revealed that dynamin A associates with punctate cytoplasmic vesicles. Double labeling with vacuolin, a marker of a postlysosomal compartment in D. discoideum, showed an almost complete colocalization of vacuolin and dynamin A. Our results suggest that that dynamin A is likely to function in membrane trafficking processes along the endo-lysosomal pathway of D. discoideum but not at the plasma membrane.     

The antiviral dynamin family member, MxA, tubulates lipids and localizes to the smooth endoplasmic reticulum

Mx proteins are induced by type I interferon and inhibit a broad range of viruses by undefined mechanisms. They are included within the dynamin family of large GTPases, which are involved in vesicle trafficking and share common biophysical features. These properties include the propensity to self-assemble, an affinity for lipids, and the ability to tubulate membranes. In this report we establish that human MxA, despite sharing only 30% homology with conventional dynamin, possesses many of these properties. We demonstrate for the first time that MxA self-assembles into rings that tubulate lipids in vitro, and associates with a specific membrane compartment in cells, the smooth endoplasmic reticulum.     

A Human Dynamin-related Protein Controls the Distribution of Mitochondria

Mitochondria exist as a dynamic tubular network with projections that move, break, and reseal in response to local environmental changes. We present evidence that a human dynamin-related protein (Drp1) is specifically required to establish this morphology. Drp1 is a GTPase with a domain structure similar to that of other dynamin family members. To identify the function of Drp1, we transiently transfected cells with mutant Drp1. A mutation in the GTPase domain caused profound alterations in mitochondrial morphology. The tubular projections normally present in wild-type cells were retracted into large perinuclear aggregates in cells expressing mutant Drp1. The morphology of other organelles was unaffected by mutant Drp1. There was also no effect of mutant Drp1 on the transport functions of the secretory and endocytic pathways. By EM, the mitochondrial aggregates found in cells that were transfected with mutant Drp1 appear as clusters of tubules rather than a large mass of coalescing membrane. We propose that Drp1 is important for distributing mitochondrial tubules throughout the cell. The function of this new dynamin-related protein in organelle morphology represents a novel role for a member of the dynamin family of proteins.