Household vulnerability to food crisis and mortality in the drought-prone areas of northern Ethiopia

This study examines the association between a household's degree of vulnerability to food crisis and the incidence of deaths using primary survey data carried out to look at the demographic consequences of drought and famine in the drought-prone areas of northern Ethiopia. Retrospective data on the occurrences of deaths within a household were collected for the period 1984 to 1994. Consistent with previous studies, the findings confirm that mortality was clustered among the age groups 1-4 and 5-9 and varied considerably by famine and non-famine years. Enormous variation in incidence of deaths was also observed by region, ethnicity and religion. Most importantly, the analysis provides substantial evidence that the level of household vulnerability to food crisis is strongly related to the number of hunger-related deaths reported in a household.     

Plant biodiversity and ethnobotany of Borana pastoralists in Southern Oromia, Ethiopia

A survey of plant biodiversity and ethnobotanical studies was conducted in southern Ethiopia using an integrated approach of botanical collections, group discussions, interviews and questionnaires. Species richness, growth forms and uses of native wild plants are described. Borana pastoralists distinguished and named 86% of the plant species identified. A total of 327 plant species distributed among 197 genera and 69 families are documented: 40% are trees/shrubs, 30% forbs (non-woody plants other than grasses and sedges), 16% grasses, 10% climbers, 2% sedges and 2% succulents. Based on richness of species and usefulness, the most important families are Poaceae, Fabaceae, Lamiaceae and Asteraceae. Two hundred forty-eight species (76%) are used by Borana pastoralists, out of which 42% have multiple uses. Indigenous knowledge of pastoralists on use and management of their plant resources is a valuable source of information for conservation and sustainable utilization of the plant biodiversity and, hence, conservation based on indigenous knowledge is recommended.     

Fermented foods, feeds, and beverages

World population reached 5 billion people in 1986 and is expected to rise to 6 particularly severe in parts of Africa, particularly Ethiopia. Hunger and malnutrition accompany the poverty that is characteristic of the masses of the people in the developing world. Even in the United States, one of the most affluent countries, there has been a considerable increase in the number of homeless people including mothers and children living in the streets or in substandard housing. The indigenous fermented foods and beverages already consumed for centuries by hundreds of millions of the world's masses can be used in many cases to improve and extend the world's food and nutrition supply at a relatively low cost. Fermented foods, feeds and beverages are getting ever increasing attention particularly in the developing world and also in the developed world. This paper summarizes activities and advances related to fermented foods, feeds, and beverages over the past several years.     

中国汉族儿童少年身高发育城乡差别的变化趋势

本文分析了1985—1995年中国26个省市7—18岁城乡儿童少年身高的发育趋势。总体上看 ,城乡差别明显缩小 ,男女生 7—18岁平均缩小0.55cm和0.64cm,其中以青春发育突增期缩小幅度最大。各省市的变化趋势不一致 ,南方省市缩小较北方明显。     

Population,agriculture, and famine: Iceland, 1784–1785

Studies of past famines are useful as portrayals of a society under stress and valuable as testing grounds for ideas on the causes and consequences of famine. Older historical sources may lack some of the richness and detail available to students of modern famines, but history offers hindsight and valuable opportunities to integrate famine studies with long-term views of a society and its ecology. This paper takes a different tack from many economic histories of past famines, especially those that rely heavily on economic measures of ecological sufficiency, such as the prices of wheat, labor, and land. It describes the effects of the disastrous 1783 eruption of Iceland's Lakagigar (Laki craters) on a largely subsistent population for whom relief measures were belated and few. At the time of the disaster the entire population lived in households whose main livelihood consisted of farming or fishing. Both these activities were acutely disrupted by the eruption. In this paper, the course of the famine and its effects on population will be analyzed and reviewed in the light of long-term trends in Icelandic population and food production.     

A bitter epidemic: The impact of the 1918 influenza on sugar production in Java

Research about the economic consequences of past epidemics has mostly focused on the experience of industrialized countries, thus providing little knowledge about the effects of health shocks on developing economies. We fill this gap by studying the impact of the 1918 influenza in Java, with a new dataset on aggregate food production and district-level figures on (i) sugar production, the major export commodity and the predominant source of labour demand; (ii) agricultural and plantation wages, and (iii) annual crude death rates. The mortality impact of the influenza on Java was high, as crude mortality rates doubled in 1918 relative to the preceding years, but its economic impact was mixed. Aggregate food production did not decline, but sugar output did fall in 1919. Indeed, our regional panel data analysis does not establish a direct relationship between regional epidemic mortality variation and sugar output decline. Instead, we hypothesize that economic activity was rediverted towards food production in order to avoid famine that could have resulted from the combined effects of disrupted shipping at the end of the First World War, climatic conditions and the public health crisis. This is supported by both qualitative observations and quantitative evidence suggesting that those regions that were highly suitable for rice production saw a larger reduction in sugar production, and that in regions that had more flexibility in land tenure arrangements experienced substantially greater reductions in sugar output.     

Anthropometric indicators of nutritional status, socioeconomic factors and mortality in hospitalized children in Addis Ababa

The influence of some household and maternal variables on three anthropometric nutritional status indices of hospitalized children in Addis Ababa, Ethiopia, are examined. On admission, only 30% of these children can be classified as being of a normal overall nutritional status. There are no significant differences in weight-for-age of hospitalized children between those residing in Addis Ababa and those residing in the rural areas. Income and father's occupation appear to be the major household factors influencing the level of two of the three indices (weight-for-age and weight-for-height). Length of last closed birth interval and, to a lesser degree, maternal age appear to have significant effects on all three nutritional status indices. Upon admission to hospital, children who will in the end survive their hospital stay are on average nutritionally normal or in a mild state of malnutrition, whereas children who will die during their stay arrive in a moderate or severe state of malnutrition. The degree of malnutrition is positively related to the risk of mortality in respiratory disease patients.     

Pastoralism Under Pressure: Tracking System Change in Southern Ethiopia

While economic development has proven elusive in African pastoral systems, change is pervasive. The majority of the Kajiado Maasai, for example, have endured marked declines in per capita livestock holdings and other aspects of human welfare over the past 50 years. We surveyed 317 Borana households to see if similar patterns occurred in southern Ethiopia, and our predictions were largely confirmed. Once viewed as the epitome of sustainable pastoralism, the Borana system now confronts numerous challenges. Decline in per capita cattle holdings has spurred household-level diversification to include maize cultivation and camel husbandry in some areas. Resource pressure has encouraged local annexation of some formerly common access grazing areas. Economic links between pastoral households and local towns still appear rare, however. Our results suggest that patterns of internally induced socioeconomic change due to population pressure in such semiarid systems are broadly predictable, and that development intervention priorities should reflect system dynamics and address emerging issues. A focus on improving risk management by facilitating household economic diversification and restoring some aspects of opportunistic resource use may be the most appropriate development options among the Ethiopian Boran at this time.     

Nutritional status and mortality of highland children in Nepal: Impact of sociocultural factors

This study investigates the nutritional status of native children in the highlands of Nepal (1,700–3,000 m) and explores the relationship between child mortality and surviving children's nutritional status. A random sample of 145 households from 11 villages in the Koshi Hill Zone in east Nepal was surveyed, and the nutritional status of the 438 children <14 years of age living in these households was assessed by means of anthropometry. We found a severe growth retardation in the Nepalese children compared to lowland reference groups as well as to highland children from the Andes. Child mortality and altitude are not significantly different between higher (Brahman and Chetri) and lower (Baisya and Sudra) caste households. A lower caste status and higher altitude of the household is associated with a significantly better nutritional status in offspring. In multiple regression analyses, improved nutritional status in children is significantly associated with lower caste (P = 0.001), higher altitude (P = 0.009), and less crowding (P = 0.001) but not with sibling mortality (P = 0.11). We thus conclude that nutritional status of children in households in the highlands of Nepal is associated with the household's socioeconomic status and altitude but not with mortality among siblings. © 1996 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

The present conservation status of Juniperus forests in the South Ethiopian Endemic Bird Area

Field survey data and Landsat satellite imagery were used to evaluate the conservation status of two Juniperus forests (Mankubsa and Arero) in the south Ethiopian Endemic Bird Area. Forest cover and dense woodland decreased in both areas between 1986 and 2002, but rates of habitat change and human impact were greater at Mankubsa than at Arero. We suggest that at Mankubsa increased grazing pressure, agricultural expansion, commercial fuelwood and timber exploitation are threatening forest persistence, while most of the degradation at Arero is because of the grazing of domestic animals. Conservation efforts should focus on creating tree plantations and improving forest resource use efficiency at Mankubsa, while at Arero better results could be obtained by improving pasture quality in the habitats surrounding the forest.     

高原鼠兔(Ochotona curzoniae)冬季自然死亡率

以耳标观察法。1985年4-7月共捕标了样地内高原鼠兔(Ochotona curzoniae)幼鼠114只。到入冬前,死亡率为50.88%。第2胎出生的鼠死亡率明显地高于第1胎的死亡率。冬季死亡率呈现波动,入冬及开春时死亡率较高。鼠兔种群进入繁殖前期死亡率趋于零。初春样区存活标志鼠6只,经夏秋冬3季总计死亡率达94.74%。如按入冬时实有标志鼠计算,冬季死亡率为91.04%。     

Ethnobotanical Study of Edible Wild Plants in Some Selected Districts of Ethiopia

The ethnobotanical study on edible wild plants was carried out from May to December, 2001, in four districts of Ethiopia. The study areas included the rural and semiurban settings of Alamata, Cheha, Goma, and Yilmana Denssa districts of Tigray, Southern Peoples, Oromiya, and Amhara regional states, respectively. Voucher plant specimens were collected along with ethnobotanical information, and scientific names were determined. One hundred and fifty two plant parts from 130 species were recognized and consumed in these districts. Children consumed more wild plants during seasons of food availability (sufficient crop stock) than adults. There was marked increase in quantity and number of wild plant species consumed during food shortage and famine. A few of the reportedly edible species caused health problems that sometimes lead to fatality. Research into the safety and nutritional composition of edible wild plants and fungi is warranted. Selected edible wild plant species should be promoted as supplements to dietary variety and/or bridging the hungry periods of food shortage.     

Effects of density,season, and food intake on sika deer nutrition on Yakushima Island,Japan

Sika deer (Cervus nippon) suffer severe winter food limitation in northern Japan; however, plant food resources are available during winter in southern Japan and, consequently, deer nutritional status may not decrease there. To test this hypothesis, we measured seasonal changes in Riney’s kidney fat index (RKFI) and stomach intake in 74 culled deer individuals from five areas with different deer densities on Yakushima Island, Japan. The average RKFI differed significantly among populations and ranged from 22.91 ± 11.91 to 76.23 ± 15.99. There was no significant correlation between RKFI and deer density. The total fresh weight of rumen contents also differed significantly among populations, ranging from 0.51 to 3.51 kg. Food intake and RKFI exhibited an L-shaped distribution in the vicinity of a town ranch. However, we found that food intake had a significantly positive effect in populations at the other four locations, suggesting that changes in nutritional status were related to the quantity of deer rumen contents. Neither deer density nor season were significantly correlated with RKFI values. The average RKFI values exceeded 20 in all five locations. These findings indicate that the deer were not in a poor nutritional condition even in high density areas of >70 head/km², which supports the above hypothesis. Notably, food intake varied among individuals in the same area, but was independent of body weight and age, which suggests that food selectivity differs between deer individuals.     

Health and disease: Exploring the relation between parasitic infections,child nutrition status,and markets

Research in bioarchaeology and among living people provides insight into the biological and biocultural consequences of subsistence, political, and economic transitions. Central to this effort is examining infectious disease, such as diarrheal disease, respiratory infections, and parasitic infections because they are an important source of nutritional and energetic stress in both past and current groups. Although infection may not always result in overt disease, frequent exposure results in biological stress with a negative effect on child growth and, by extension, health. The goal of this article is to examine the association between a common class of infectious disease, soil-transmitted helminth worms, and nutritional status among youth living in communities that vary with respect to their distance from a commercial center. In 2007, anthropometric measurements and parasitological surveys were collected for 338 2–14-year-old children and adolescents living in lowland Bolivia as part of the Tsimane' Amazonian Panel Study. Associations between the presence of helminth infections and markers of both short- and long-term nutritional status were overall weak. Youth living in communities distant from the commercial center were more likely to be positive for multiple parasite species than youth in near communities, but youth in mid-distance communities had lower infection rates. This article demonstrates the challenge of identifying associations between nutritional and disease stress when individual and household factors are nested in a larger context of socioeconomic and environmental change. Increased collaboration between bioarchaeology and human biology should continue to examine the connections between stress and disease across time. Am J Phys Anthropol 155:221–228, 2014. © 2014 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Effects of siltation on resource utilization and dynamics of allopatric brown trout,Salmo trulta,in a reservoir

Synopsis The water level of the old hydroelectric Ringedal Reservoir in western Norway was unusually low during 1985, resulting in severe erosion and siltation. The secchi disc transparency was 18 m in July 1984, decreased to 0.3 m in July 1985, and increased to 13 m in July 1986 after a rise in the water level. The abiotic changes induced major effects in the zooplankton community, with a strong reduction in occurrence of Cladocera (Holopedium gibberum andBosmina longispina). The allopatric population of brown trout,Salmo trutta, which mainly fed on zooplankton before the siltation, fed predominantly on surface insects during the summer of high siltation. The food consumption was lower than in the pre- and post-siltation years, resulting in reduced k-values, reduced number of spawners, and increased mortality of mature fish.     

Fertility trends in Singapore

In 1966, the Singapore National Family Planning and Population Program established the goal of reaching replacement fertility by 1990 and zero population growth by the year 2030. To achieve this goal, the government relied on a series of incentives and disincentives to discourage births above the 3rd birth order, including tax relief for the 1st 3 children only, paid medical leave for women undergoing sterilization after the 3rd or subsequent birth, monetary stipends in some cases where the mother is sterilized after the 1st or 2nd birth, and increasing accouchement charges for increasing birth orders. Also important to demographic planning were liberalization of Singapore's abortion legislation and more aggressive promotion of contraception. As a result of these efforts, Singapore's crude birth rate has declined from 29.5/1000 population in 1965 to 16.6/1000 in 1985. Also observed have been dramatic declines in infant mortality in this same period, from 26.2/1000 live births to 9.3/1000, and in maternal mortality, from 52/100,000 live births to 10/100,000. In 1985, 42% of total births were to women in the 25-29-year age group. The numbers of 4th and later births fell by 90% between 1966 and 1985. The total fertility rate has declined from 4.6/woman in 1965 to 3.1 in 1970 to 1.6 in 1986. Below replacement level fertility was achieved in 1975, in part because of government policy but also as a result of cultural and socioeconomic factors such as increasing female labor force participation rates, a break-up of the extended family system, a rise in the age at 1st marriage, and rises in educational attainment. The drop in fertility was contributed mainly by the higher socioeconomic class, more affluent, and educated Singaporeans. Thus, in 1981, the government introduced certain pronatalist policies and incentives to encourage better educated women to produce more children, e.g., tax relief and the elimination of monetary incentives to sterilization acceptors above a median income level.     

Herder Perceptions on Impacts of Range Enclosures,Crop Farming,Fire Ban and Bush Encroachment on the Rangelands of Borana,Southern Ethiopia

This study focuses on community-based knowledge to analyze the impacts of range enclosures, crop farming, fire suppression and bush encroachment on the communal rangelands of Borana, southern Ethiopia. The knowledge of local herders is the basis for decision making in the utilization and management of grazing lands. We used Borana oral history associated with the period of the gada system to reconstruct environmental change that spans a period of 48 years. Our results show that the use of communities’ perceptions as a basis for evaluating the impacts of land use change on the environment makes an important methodological contribution. Communities’ responses to changing land use resulted in the development of range enclosures, the expansion of crop farming and the fragmentation of the communal rangelands, while the suppression of fire contributed to the expansion of bush encroachment. The overall impact was forage scarcity and greater vulnerability of stock during drought years. We conclude that policymakers could use communities’ knowledge of environmental change to improve the use of the rangelands. We propose that sustainable use of the southern rangelands in the future will require a greater focus on regulating the expansion of enclosures, crop farming and ranching, as well as reintroducing fire where necessary, to control the expansion of bush cover.

Household food group expenditure patterns are associated with child anthropometry at ages 5, 8 and 12 years in Ethiopia,India, Peru and Vietnam

Population-level analysis of dietary influences on nutritional status is challenging in part due to limitations in dietary intake data. Household expenditure surveys, covering recent household expenditures and including key food groups, are routinely conducted in low- and middle-income countries. These data may help identify patterns of food expenditure that relate to child growth.ObjectivesWe investigated the relationship between household food expenditures and child growth using factor analysis.MethodsWe used data on 6993 children from Ethiopia, India, Peru and Vietnam at ages 5, 8 and 12y from the Young Lives cohort. We compared associations between household food expenditures and child growth (height-for-age z scores, HAZ; body mass index-for-age z scores, BMI-Z) using total household food expenditures and the “household food group expenditure index” (HFGEI) extracted from household expenditures with factor analysis on the seven food groups in the child dietary diversity scale, controlling for total food expenditures, child dietary diversity, data collection round, rural/urban residence and child sex. We used the HFGEI to capture households’ allocations of their finances across food groups in the context of local food pricing, availability and pReferencesResultsThe HFGEI was associated with significant increases in child HAZ in Ethiopia (0.07), India (0.14), and Vietnam (0.07) after adjusting for all control variables. Total food expenditures remained significantly associated with increases in BMI-Z for India (0.15), Peru (0.11) and Vietnam (0.06) after adjusting for study round, HFGEI, dietary diversity, rural residence, and whether the child was female. Dietary diversity was inversely associated with BMI-Z in India and Peru. Mean dietary diversity increased from age 5y to 8y and decreased from age 8y to 12y in all countries.ConclusionHousehold food expenditure data provide insights into household food purchasing patterns that significantly predict HAZ and BMI-Z. Including food expenditure patterns data in analyses may yield important information about child nutritional status and linear growth.     

Encroachment of woody plants and its impact on pastoral livestock production in the Borana lowlands, southern Oromia, Ethiopia

Encroachment of woody plants has been among the major threats to the livelihoods of Borana pastoralists and their ecosystem. An approach that integrated vegetation survey and pastoralists’ perception was followed to study the impacts of encroachment of woody plants in the Borana lowlands, Ethiopia. Density of woody species was determined in 192 plots of 500 m². Canopy cover of woody plants was estimated in 123 quadrates of 400 m². Pastoralists’ perception was assessed through group discussions and a semi‐structured questionnaire. Results showed that plant density was 3014 woody plants ha^?1. Cover of woody plants was 52%, indicating an increasing trend from ≤40% cover reported in the early 1990s. It was concluded that the increase of woody plants density and cover has crossed the critical threshold and has entered into the encroached condition. Principal components analysis (PCA) and redundancy analysis (RDA) also showed that woody plants were negatively correlated with herbaceous biomass. Commiphora africana, Acacia melliphera, A. drepanolobium, A. brevispica and Lannea rivae were among the dominant encroachers. RDA revealed that soil nutrients were positively correlated with woody plants density and cover. The pastoralists perceived that encroachment of woody plants had decreased the production of their grazingland. A ban on fire was perceived as the major factor that caused encroachment of woody plants. Re‐utilization of fire and strengthening of traditional rangeland management strategies are recommended.     

The effects of breastfeeding and birth spacing on infant and early childhood mortality in Ethiopia

Research conducted in developing countries clearly demonstrates the positive effects of breastfeeding and widely spaced births on infant survival. The evidence is less clear as to whether these beneficial effects extend into early childhood, and under what conditions. In this paper we examine the effects of breastfeeding and birth spacing on neonatal, post-neonatal, and early childhood mortality in Ethiopia using data from the 1990 National Family and Fertility Survey. Our results provide clear evidence that the increased mortality risks associated with closely-spaced births continue beyond the first year of life into early childhood. Competition between siblings for food and maternal attention is the most probable explanation for this finding. We also find that breastfeeding beyond the second year of life is associated with higher mortality. Given that delayed weaning in Ethiopia is a common response to food shortages, we interpret this finding as further evidence of the negative consequences of resource deprivation for child survival.