Flexibility on the karyotype evolution in bitterlings (Pisces, Cyprinidae)

In bitterlings (Acheilognathinae) C- and Ag-banding karyotypes of 6 species-subspecies collected in China and South Korea were analyzed. The chromosomal constitution of 2n=46 (4SM+42ST) in Rhodeus atremius fangi was quite different from that of 2n=48 (8M+20SM+20ST) in other species-subspecies in Rhodeus. It was concluded from the analysis of banded chromosomes that the increase in number of ST during the karyotype change from 2n=48 to 2n=46 was achieved by a series of pericentric inversions from 24 M-SM to 24 ST, and the decrease in the diploid number was caused by an additional tandem fusion of 4 ST chromosomes, forming a new ST pair in the 2n=46 karyotype. The karyotype of Tanakia koreensis, T. signifer, and Acheilognathus macropterus is 2n=48 (8M+20SM+20ST), 2n=48 (8M+20SM+14–16ST+4–6 A), 2n=44 (14M+16SM+14ST), respectively. In R. ocellatus ocellatus, T. koreensis, T. signifer and A. macropterus, karyotype changes from 2n=48 to 2n=44 due to centric fusion and inversion have also been estimated. It was suggested that C-banding heterochromatin was greatly concerned with the karyotype evolution in bitterlings.     

Defective remethylation of homocysteine is related to decreased synthesis of coenzymes B2 in thyroidectomized rats

Summary. We investigated the influence of hypothyroidism on homocysteine metabolism in rats, focusing on a hypothetical deficient synthesis of FAD by riboflavin kinases. Animals were allocated in control group (n=7), thyroidectomized rats (n=6), rats with diet deficient in vitamin B2, B9, B12, choline and methionine (n=7), thyroidectomized rats with deficient diet (n=9). Homocysteine was decreased in operated rats (2.6±1.01 vs. 4.05±1.0mol/L, P=0.02) and increased in deficient diet rats (29.56±4.52 vs. 4.05±1.0mol/L, P=0.001), when compared to control group. Erythrocyte-Glutathione-Reductase-Activation-Coefficient (index of FAD deficiency) was increased in thyroidectomized or deficient diet rats (P=0.004 for both). Methylenetetrahydrofolate-reductase and methionine-synthase activities were decreased in thyroidectomized rats but not in those subjected to deficient diet. Cystathionine--synthase was increased only in operated rats. Taken together, these results showed a defective re-methylation in surgical hypothyroidism, which was due in part to a defective synthesis of vitamin B2 coenzymes. This defective pathway was overcompensated by the increased Cystathionine--synthase activity.     

Polygonal inequalities as a key to neuronic equations

Neuronic or decision equations, first proposed as a mathematical model of neural activity, have shown, after their exact, compact solution was found, typical behaviours that make them natural tools for General Systems studies. It is shown here that their mathematical investigation is remarkably furthered by generalizing the triangular inequality to polygonal ones. These permit the immediate computation of the tensorial expansion of linearly separable boolean functions, and exhibit clearly the connection between their continuous and discontinuous aspects.     

Observations on the fine structure of the cercaria of Notocotylus attenuatus and formation of the cyst wall of the metacercaria

Summary The dorsal tegument of the mature cercaria of Notocotylus attenuatus is a syncytial, cytoplasmic layer, containing two types of secretory granule which are identifiable ultrastructurally. The type 1 secretory bodies are electron lucid, whereas most type 2 granules have a banded appearance. The ventral tegument contains granules which are secreted from the type 3 cells; the type 3 granules are membrane bound, electron dense, and consist of both an amorphous and a finely striated zone. The type 4 cells mainly contain cigar-shaped granules consisting of an amorphous core surrounded by concentric striations. The granules exhibit structural variability in shape and content. The type 4 cells undergo a cellular migration to the tegument during encystment. The structure of the posterior-lateral glands and mode of secretion of the granules are described. Possible functions of microtubules are discussed for each cell type. Details of some secretory processes involved in the formation of the hemispherical cyst wall are described. The layers of the cyst wall may be related to the granular contents of the various parenchymal cells of the cercaria. The tegument of the metacercaria originates primarily from the cytoplasm of the type 1, type 2, type 3 and type 4 cells.     

Comparative study of the antitumor effect of two types of murine recombinant interferons, (β) and (γ), against B16-F10 melanoma

Summary A comparative study of the antitumor effect of murine recombinant interferon() Mu-rIFN() and murine recombinant interferon() Mu-rIFN() on B16-F10 melanoma was conducted. Administration of Mu-rIFN() i.p. into C57BL/6 mice on days 1 to 7 produced a higher suppressive effect than Mu-rIFN() both on the growth of s.c. implanted tumor and on the formation of artificial pulmonary metastasis. Pharmacokinetic study of Mu-rIFN() demonstrated that high plasma levels were retained for a long time. In clonogenic assay, Mu-rIFN() at 1000 units/ml showed about 80% inhibition of colonies of B16-F10 melanoma. However, Mu-rIFN() hardly inhibited the colonies, even at 1000 units/ml. Augmentation of natural killer (NK) cytotoxicity was much greater with Mu-rIFN() than Mu-rIFN(), whereas Mu-rIFN() enhanced the cytotoxicity of peritoneal macrophages more strongly than Mu-rIFN(). Injection of Mu-rIFN() i.p. 1 day before tumor challenge also inhibited the formation of pulmonary metastasis of B16-F10 melanoma. However, pretreatment of mice with carrageenan significantly suppressed the inhibitory effect of Mu-rIFN(). From these results, it is suggested that the inhibitory effect of Mu-rIFN() on the tumor growth and metastases of B16-F10 melanoma is mediated partly by direct antitumor effect and partly by the activation of macrophages, and that the augmentation of NK activity contributes mainly to the antitumor effect of Mu-rIFN().     

Expression of a chimeric stilbene synthase gene in transgenic wheat lines

A chimeric stilbene synthase (sts)gene was transferred into wheat. Stilbene synthases play a role in the defence against fungal diseases in some plant species (e.g. groundnut or grapevine) by producing stilbenetype phytoalexins like resveratrol. Resveratrol is also claimed to have positive effects to human health. Embryogenic scutellar calli derived from immature embryos of the two commercial German spring wheat cultivars Combi and Hanno were used as target tissue for cotransformation by microprojectile delivery. The selectable marker/reporter gene constructs contained the bargene either driven by the ubiquitinpromoter from maize (pAHC 25, also containing the uidAgene driven by the ubiquitinpromoter), or by the actinpromoter (pDM 302) from rice. The cotransferred plasmid pStil 2 consisted of a grapevine stscoding region driven by the ubiquitin promoter. Eight transgenic Combi and one Hanno T_Oplant were obtained and, except one Combi T_Oplant, found to be cotransformants due to the integration of both the stsgene and the selectable marker or reporter genes. Expression of the stsgene was proven by RTPCR, and, for the first time, by detection of the stilbene synthase product resveratrol by HPLC and mass spectrometry. The stsgene was expressed in four of the seven transgenic Combi T_{_o}plants. Two of the respective T₁progenies segregated in a Mendelian manner were still expressing the gene. Investigations into methylation of the stsgene showed that in three nonexpressing progenies inactivation was paralleled by methylation.     

Relation between trace element levels in plasma and myocardium during coxsackievirus B3 myocarditis in the mouse

During most infections the plasma levels of trace elements change, but it is not clear if this reflects changes in the infected tissues. Coxsackievirus B3 (CB3) infection may result in viral replication, subsequent inflammation and changed trace element levels in the myocardium. In the present study, the trace element levels in the plasma and heart of adult male A/J mice were determined during the pre-inflammatory stage (day 4) of CB3 myocarditis for the following trace elements: aluminium (Al), arsenic (As), calcium (Ca), cobalt (Co), copper (Cu), iron (Fe), magnesium (Mg), manganese (Mn), selenium (Se), silver (Ag), vanadium (V) and zinc (Zn). The severity of the infection was assessed through clinical signs of disease and trace element levels were measured through inductively-coupled plasma mass-spectrometry (ICP-MS). In the heart, the levels decreased for V (59%; p<0.01), Co (38%; p<0.01), Al (81%; p< 0.01), As (66%; p<0.01) and Se (16%; p<0.01). Increased levels were detected for Mn (13%; p<0.05), Fe (48%; p<0.01), Cu (34%; p<0.01) and Ag (46%; p< 0.01). In the plasma, decreases were detected in the level of Zn (32%; p<0.05), whereas increases were seen in Mn (362%; p<0.05), Fe (272%; p<0.01), Co (71%; p<0.05), Cu (25%; n.s.) and Mg (43%; p<0.01) levels. A correlation was found between the levels in plasma and myocardium for Co (r _s=–0.636; p<0.05), Fe (r _s=0.764; p<0.05), Mn (r _s=0.682; p<0.05) and Mg (r _s=–0.791; p<0.05). Thus, determination of some of these trace elements in the plasma may be useful to indicate target tissue involvement in the early pre- inflammatory stage of an infectious disease. Some of these elements are important nutrients for the immune system, while others may be associated with the development of disease complications, such as cardiac arrhythmias.     

Carboxyl-terminal modification alters the subunit interactions and assembly pathways of normal and sickle hemoglobins

Parallel isofocusing studies established that carboxypeptidase A removal of the His-146 (HC3) and Tyr-145 (HC2) residues of heme subunits affected the assembly properties of both Des (A) and Des (S) with heme chains, albeit to differing degrees. Indeed, the rate of Des (A) oligomer dissociation (k ₁), as determined by visible spectroscopy, was 4.3-fold faster than that of its native (A) counterpart. Furthermore, Soret spectral studies have affirmed distinct rates of normal (HbA), sickle (HbS), and Des HbA hemoglobin assembly (k₂) from their and [Des (A)] heme-containing monomers. Matching kinetic analysis of Des (A) and Des (S) chain assembly (with an identical chain) revealed 4.6- and 7.8-fold faster combination rates than those seen for (A) and (S) chains, respectively. This 3-fold disparity in rates strongly supports the critical role of the -6 (A3) residue, and its amino-terminal region, in chain partner recognition and subsequent human hemoglobin assembly.     

Membrane pathways for water and solutes in the toad bladder: II. Reflection coefficients of the water and solute channels

Summary Urea and water transport across the toad bladder can be separately activated by low concentrations of vasopressin or 8 Br-cAMP. Employing this method of selective activation, we have determined the reflection coefficient () of urea and other small molecules under circumstances in which the bladder was transporting urea or water. An osmotic method for the determination of was used, in which the ability of a given solute to retard water efflux from the bladder was compared to that of raffinose (=1.0) or water (=0). When urea transport was activated (low concentration of vasopressin), for urea and other solutes was low, (_urea,0.08–0.39;_acetamide, 0.55; _{ethylene glycol}, 0.60). When water transport was activated (0.1mm 8 Br-cAMP) _urea approached 1.0 _urea also approached 1.0 at high vasopressin concentrations. In a separate series of studies, _urea was determined in the presence of 2×10^–5 m KMnO₄ in the luminal bathing medium. Under these conditions, when urea transport is selectively blocked, _urea rose from a value of 0.12 to 0.89. Thus, permanganate appears to close the urea transport channel. These findings indicate that the luminal membrane channels for water and solutes differ significantly in their dimensions. The solute channels, limited in number, have relatively large radii. They carry a small fraction (approximately 10%) of total water flow. The water transport channels, on the other hand, have small radii, approximately the size of a water molecule, and exclude solutes as small as urea.     

The levels of ζ, γ, and δ chains in patients with Hb H disease

Summary Details are given of a study of blood samples from 24 patients with Hb H disease from different Mediterranean countries and from the Far East. Four different types of -thal-1 (--) were observed, namely-() ( 20.5-kb deletion);--MED-I ( 17.5-kb deletion);--MED-II (>26.5-kb deletion); and--SEA ( 18-kb deletion, in Orientals only). The -thal-2 was mainly of the deletion type (16 with the 3.7-kb deletion; 1 with the 4.2-kb deletion), while 4 of the 7 patients with a nondeletional type had the five-nucleotide deletion at the donor splice site of the first intron of the 2 gene. All patients had a mild-to-moderate hemolytic anemia; no significant differences in hematology were observed between the groups. Hb A₂ was decreased to about one-third of the normal level. The Hb H formation varied considerably and its quantitation was not always satisfactory. Patients with Hb H disease due to any -thal-1 combined with a nondeletional -thal-2 had the highest Hb H levels and a more marked anemia. The chain production was small and absent in patients with the MED-II type of -thal-1 because this deletion included the and genes. The highest chain levels were present in the four patients with the SEA type of -thal-1. The chain production was increased, particularly in patients with a mutation of C T at position-158 to the ^G globin gene. This chain was primarily present as Hb Bart's (or ₄) and only about 15% was recovered as Hb F or ₂₂. The evaluation of the rate of chains produced in these patients was greatly facilitated by data from one patient who had Hb H disease and a heterozygosity for the ^A-⁺. The low levels of Hb A₂ and of Hb F (relative to Hb Bart's) can be explained by a decreased affinity of chains for and chains as compared with chains in conditions of severe chain deficiency.     

Saponin-like substances inhibit α-galactosidase production in the endosperm of fenugreek seeds

When fenugreek (Trigonella foenum-graecum L.) endosperms plus testa (endosperms), which had been isolated from 5-h-imbibed seeds, were incubated for at least 2 h under germination conditions, they leaked substances which, like exogenous abscisic acid (ABA), inhibited the production of fenugreek endosperm -galactosidase. However, unlike ABA, 8 h treatment with these inhibitors had no effect on fenugreek endosperms which had been isolated from 15-h-imbibed seeds and leached for 2 h. This indicated that either their inhibitory action was on processes which were related to the production of -galactosidase and had been completed by this time, or that there might be factors present which inactivate these inhibitors. It was also concluded that the action of the endosperm leachate could not be attributed to the presence of ABA. The activity of the leachate decreased when it originated from endosperms imbibed for periods longer than 25 h and thin-layer chromatography (TLC) of extracts from these endosperms showed decreased contents of the leachable inhibitors as imbibition proceeded. From the seed leachate, which had a TLC pattern and inhibitory action similar to that of the endosperm, were isolated three substances which, when applied to endosperms, inhibited the production of -galactosidase activity. According to their chromatographic behaviour and their reaction with specific reagents, there are strong indications that these substances are saponins. These diffusible saponin-like substances were located in both endosperm and perisperm and their physiological role is discussed.Abbreviations ABA abscisic acid - PEG polyethylenglycol - TLC thin-layer chromatography We wish to thank the Alexander S. Onasis Public Benefit Foundation for a grant to K.Z. and Dr. J.S.G. Reid (University of Stirling, Scotland) for a kind gift of fenugreek seeds.     

Adoptions expérimentales de larves entre des fourmis de genres différents (II):Myrmica laevinodis Nylander etAnergates atratulus Schenck

Résumé Nous avons fait élever des larves d'Anergates atratulus par des ouvrières deMyrmica laevinodis à 22°C. Pour y parvenir, il n'est pas utile de faire hivernerensemble les larves d'Anergates et les ouvrières deMyrmica. La présence de larves autochtones n'empêche pas lesMyrmica d'élever des larves d'Anergates. Dans toutes les expériences lesMyrmica ont été soumises au fridavant de recevoir des larves d'Anergates. Aucune reine deMyrmica n'a été utilisée dans ces expériences.Sur les 64 larves d'Anergates que nous avons utilisées, 38 se sont transformées en imagos. C'est au début de l'adoption et au moment des métamorphoses que périrent la plupart des 26Anergates perdus. Les femelles vécurent en général 2 ou 3 jours et cherchèrent très tôt à quitter le nid natal. Les mâles vécurent 2 à 3 semaines.

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Summary Larvae ofAnergates atratulus were experimentally reared by workers ofMyrmica laevinodis, at 22°C. An overwintering of both larvae ofAnergates and workers ofMyrmica is not necessary for the success of that experiment. The presence of larvae ofMyrmica does not keep theMyrmica from rearing larvae ofAnergates. The workers ofMyrmica have been cooled, in all the experiments, before receiving larvae ofAnergates. No queen ofMyrmica have been used in that experiments.38 of the 64 larvae ofAnergates used became imagos. Most of the 26 lostAnergates died at the beginning of the adoption and during the metamorphosis. The females lived generally 2 or 3 days and tried, very early, to leave their native nest. The males lived 2 or 3 weeks.

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Anergates atratulus Myrmica laevinodis, 22 . bmecme Anergates Myrmica. Myrmica Anergates. Myrmica Anergates. Myrmica . 64 Anergates , 38 . 26 Anergates 2 3 . 2 3 .

     

β-Ether cleavage of the lignin model compound 4-ethoxy-3-methoxyphenylglycerol-β-guaiacyl ether and derivatives by Phanerochaete chrysosporium

The white rot basidiomycete Phanerochaete chrysosporium metabolized 4-ethoxy-3-methoxyphenyl-glycerol--guaiacyl ether (V) in low nitrogen, stationary cultures under which conditions the ligninolytic enzyme system is expressed. 4-Ethoxy-3-methoxyphenylglycerol XIII, guaicol and 4-ethoxy-3-methoxybenzyl alcohol (II) were isolated as metabolic products. Exogenously added XIII was rapidly converted to 4-ethoxy-3-methoxybenzyl alcohol indicating that it is an intermediate in the metabolism of V. P. chrysosporium also metabolized 1-(4-ethoxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-(2-methoxyphenoxy)-3-hydroxypropane VI. The degradation pathway for this dimer also included initial -ether cleavage and -hydroxylation of the diol product 1-(4-ethoxy-3-methoxyphenyl) 2,3 dihydroxypropane (XI) to yield the triol XIII which was cleaved at the , bond to yield 4-ethoxy-3-methoxybenzyl alcohol. Finally P. chrysosporium also cleaved the dimer 1-(4-ethoxy-3-methoxyphenyl)-2-(2-methoxyphenoxy)-1-hydroxypropane (VIII) at the -ether linkage yielding 1-(4-ethoxy-3-methoxyphenyl) 1,2 dihydroxypropane (IX) which was subsequently cleaved at the , bond to yield II. All of the results indicate that oxidative -ether cleavage is an important initial reaction in the metabolism of -aryl ether lignin substructure dimeric compounds. Metabolities were identified after comparison with chemically synthesized standards by gas liquid chromatography-mass spectrometry.Abbreviations GLC Gas liquid chromatography - TMSi trimethylsilyl - TLC thin layer chromatography     

Selective amidation of carboxyl groups of the intermolecular contact regions of hemoglobin S: Structural aspects

Carboxyl groups of HbS are readily activated by water-soluble carbodiimide atpH 6.0 and room temperature. These o-acylurea intermediates (activated carboxyl) are accessible for nucleophilic attack by amines. With glycine ethyl ester, the amidation is very selective for the -carboxyl of Glu-43() and more than 65% of the glycine ethyl ester incorporated is on this carboxyl group. In contrast, glucosamine derivatizes the -carboxyl group of Glu-22() as well as that of Glu-43() to nearly the same degree. However, the total amidation of HbS by glucosamine is lower than that with glycine ethyl ester. The differential selectivity of the two amines is apparently related to the differences in the microenvironment of the -carboxyl groups of Glu-22() and Glu-43(), which either facilitates or refracts the aminolysis of the activated carboxyl with the two amines to different degrees. The carboxyl groups of isolated -chain exhibit a higher reactivity for amidation with glycine ethyl ester than does the tetramer. The carboxyl groups of Glu-22() and Glu-43() and that of Asp-47() are all activated by carbodiimide suggesting that the higherpK_a of these carboxyl groups (facilitating the activation) is a property of tertiary interaction of the polypeptide chain. The interaction of the -chain with -chain, i.e., generation of the quaternary interactions, reduces overall reactivity of the carboxyl groups of the protein. The higher selectivity of hemoglobin S for amidation at Glu-43() with glycine ethyl ester compared with that of isolated -chain appears to be primarily a consequence of decreased amidation at sites other than at Glu-43().     

The effect of monoterpenes on astaxanthin production by a mutant ofPhaffia rhodozyma

Summary The total pigment and astaxanthin content ofPhaffia rhodozyma increased with increasing concentrations -pinene up to 500 l -pinene/l. Above this concentration the total pigment and astaxanthin content as well as the biomass production decreased. The addition of 500 l -pinene/l increased the total pigment content from 1652 g/g to 2201 g/g and the astaxanthin content from 1554 g/g to 1883 g/g. A sharp decrease in maximum specific growth rate occurred above 150 l -pinene/l.     

Conservation status of parrot populations in an Atlantic rainforest area of southeastern Brazil

A census of four species of syntopic parrots was carried out using distance sampling methods on São Sebastião island, SE Brazil. Most of the 33593 ha island is covered by mature and secondary Atlantic rainforest. Almost 80% of these forests are within the Ilhabela Park. Although the species counted have marked differences in size and weight, density (individuals/km²) and estimated population size in 23500 ha of well-preserved forests were similar: Amazona farinosa (13.82±5.94; 3247±1395), Pionus maximiliani (15.79±7.04; 3712±1654), Brotogeris tirica (15.05±4.87; 3537±1143) and Pyrrhura frontalis (13.06±5.53; 3068±1298). Encounter rates of Forpus crassirostris and Pionopsitta pileata were very low, which suggests that there is only a small population of these species on the island. The São Sebastião forests still support healthy populations of parrots. Although woodpecker population estimates on the island are large enough to provide nesting sites for parrots, competition for holes with other secondary cavity nesters such as toucans, flycatchers and tytiras, and the selective cutting of dead trees for canoe construction, which is a common practice on the island, may limit hole availability for parrots.     

Structural studies of the glycopeptides of B-chain of cinnamomin – a type II ribosome-inactivating protein by nuclear magnetic resonance

Cinnamomin is a plant type II ribosome-inactivating protein (RIP) isolated from the seeds of Cinnamomum camphora. It consists of two nonidentical polypeptide chains (A- and B-chain) held together through one disulfide linkage. Its A- and B-chain contain 0.3% and 3.9% sugars respectively. The B-chain of cinnamomin was digested by pronase E and then the liberated glycopeptides were separated from non-glycopeptides by gel filtration chromatography on a Bio-Gel P-4 column. Three crude glycopeptides were obtained by continuing chromatography over anion-exchange resin (AG1-X2) in the buffer of 2% pyridine-acetic acid (pH 8.3) with a polygradient elution system. Through further purification by the gel filtration chromatography and HPLC, three major glycopeptides, GP1, GP2 and GP3 were obtained. Mainly by two-dimensional Nuclear Magnetic Resonance (NMR) including TOCSY, DQF-COSY, NOESY, HMQC and HMBC, their primary structures were analyzed as: Man1,3Man1,6(Man1,3)(Xyl1,2)Man1,4GlcNAc1,4GlcNAc1-(Gly-)Asn-Asn-Thr(GP1), Man1,6(Man1,3)(Xyl1,2)Man1,4GlcNAc1,4(Fuc1,3)GlcNAc1-Asn-Ala-Thr(GP2),Man1,6(Man1,3)Man1,6(Man1,2 Man1,3)Man1,4GlcNAc1,4GlcNAc1-(Ala-)Asn-Gly-Thr(GP3).     

Zur Dynamik feiner Pseudopodien von Hochmoor-Amöben

Zusammenfassung Es werden verschiedene Vorgänge an sehr zarten Pseudopodien beschrieben und mit Hilfe der an submikroskopischen Fibrillen (schraubig gebauten Mikrofibrillen und Mikroröhrchen der Elektronenmikroskopie) auftretenden Torsionsspannungen und Rotationen gedeutet.

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On the dynamics of slender pseudopodia of bog amebae

Summary Different processes which occur on very slender pseudopods are described. They are interpreted with the help of torsional forces and revolutions of the submicroscopic fibrils (helical microfibrils and microtubules in electron microscopy).

     

Integrins: cell adhesives and modulators of cell function

Summary Integrins encompass a family of cell-surface molecules which play a crucial role in cell-cell and cell-extracellular matrix interaction. Of these heterodimeric transmembrane glycoproteins (consisting of an and chain) as yet at least 20 different types have been described, all with a different pattern of reactivity with extracellular matrix components. In this review the cell and tissue distribution of the integrins is discussed, with special emphasis on immunohistochemical localization of the ₁ integrins and the ₆₄ integrin. The ₁ integrins comprise a subfamily in which eight chains combine with one (the ₁) chain. The ₂₁, ₃₁ and ₆₁ and the ₆₄ integrins are expressed on a wide variety of epithelia on the basolateral surface or exclusively on the basal surface facing the basement membrane (e.g. ₆₁ and ₆₄). Leucocyte integrins, which share a common ₂ chain, occur almost exclusively on white blood cells and their precursors. The vitronectin receptors, which share a common _v chain, occur in a wide variety of cell types. Integrins play a major role in the interaction of the cell with the extracellular matrix in order to create and maintain tissue architecture. It has become clear, however, that through integrin-ligand interaction cell function is also modulated. Furthermore, in pathological conditions integrins play a role of some significance. Integrins mediate leucocyte traffic in developing inflammatory processes and function in neoplastic growth when it comes to invasion and metastasis.