Crown structure and leaf area of the understorey species Prunus serotina

A detailed biometrical study of the exotic understorey invader Prunus serotina (Ehrh.) was carried out in a mixed coniferous forest stand in northern Belgium. Based on detailed destructive measurements of eight selected model trees, allometric relations of tree height, crown projected area, woody and leaf dry mass and leaf area on tree diameter at breast height (DBH) were derived. The scaling-up procedure from the tree to the stand level was done using the frequency distribution of DBH obtained at the selected experimental plot. The vertical and radial distributions of the tree foliage were estimated by the “cloud” technique. The vertical profile of leaf area showed a bimodal distribution pattern with maxima at heights of 4 and 6 m above the ground. The leaf area index (LAI) of the understorey Prunus serotina as estimated by the described up-scaling procedure (5.1) was significantly higher than the LAI (2.6) as measured by a plant canopy analyser and was also significantly higher than the LAI of the overstorey species Scots pine (1.5–3.0). The LAI of a neighbouring Rhododendron understorey reached only 1.25. This study emphasises the importance of an exotic understorey species in the total leaf area of mixed coniferous forests which might have important implications for the energy and mass exchanges of the entire forest.     

Variation of specific leaf area and upscaling to leaf area index in mature Scots pine

Reliable and objective estimations of specific leaf area (SLA) and leaf area index (LAI) are essential for accurate estimates of the canopy carbon gain of trees. The variation in SLA with needle age and position in the crown was investigated for a 73-year-old Scots pine (Pinus sylvestris L.) stand in the Belgian Campine region. Allometric equations describing the projected needle area of the entire crown were developed, and used to estimate stand needle area. SLA (cm² g⁻¹) as significantly influenced by the position in the crown and by needle age (current-year versus 1-year-old needles). SLA increased significantly from the top to the bottom of the crown, and was significantly higher near the interior of the crown as compared to the crown edge. SLA of current-year needles was significantly higher than that of 1-year-old needles. Allometric relationships of projected needle area with different tree characteristics showed that stem diameter at breast height (DBH), tree height and crown depth were reliable predictors of projected needle area at the tree level. The allometric relationships between DBH and projected needle area at the tree level were used to predict stand-level needle area and estimate LAI. The LAI was 1.06 (m² m⁻²) for current-year needles and 0.47 for 1-year-old needles, yielding a total stand LAI of 1.53.     

Allometric relationships for Eucalyptus nitens (Deane and Maiden) Maiden plantations

Allometric relationships between stem, leaf area and crown dimensions were determined for Eucalyptus nitens (Deane and Maiden) Maiden using 81 trees sampled from 13 post-canopy closure sites and 34 trees sampled from 6 pre-canopy closure sites. These sites differed in site quality, stand age, fertiliser treatment, stand density and levels of weed infestation. Overall, tree age ranged from 2 to 13 years, tree height from 1.4 to 26.1 m and diameter at breast height from 0.6 to 38.7 cm. Pre-canopy closure trees exhibited site-specific relationships which were to some extent confounded with tree age. However, post-canopy closure trees had relationships which were independent of site, age and silvicultural treatments. Strong relationships between structural components were found for both stem and crown. Stem diameter at breast height was non-linearly related to tree height and crown length. Stem sapwood area (breast height or crown base) could be predicted from stem cross-sectional area. For post-canopy closure trees, a functional relationship between sapwood area (breast height and crown base) and leaf area was site-independent. The lack of specificity in terms of both site and management techniques enables these relationships to be applied generally to E. nitens plantations in Tasmania.     

黄土高原油松天然纯林结构特征的研究

结构是森林群落的基本特征,决定着群落的功能和发展方向。该研究采用结构参数角尺度(W)、混交度(M)、大小比数(U)以及样地纵剖面图分析了两块长宽均为60 m×60 m的油松天然林的空间结构特征,同时采用胸径(DBH)、树高(TH)和冠幅面积(CA)分布的直方图以及Shannon-Wiener多样性指数分析了它的非空间结构特征。结果表明:油松天然林种间隔离程度很低(=0.019),几乎为油松纯林,个体大小分化均匀(=0.478),整体呈随机分布(=0.485)。小树(TH≤5 m)个体相对较少,而大树(TH10 m)占多数且其树高分布集中。平均树高多样性THD=2.35,胸径集中分布在14~34 cm,58.4%~62.8%的树冠面积分布在20~40 m~2。林下油松幼苗更新丰富,但分布不均。这些特征表明成熟的油松天然林群落结构不稳定,可能趋向衰退并将逐渐被其他阔叶树种代替。     

樟子松人工林树冠表面积及体积预估模型的研究

基于樟子松(Pinus sylvestris var. mongolica)人工林6块固定标准地30株枝解析数据,在分析树冠表面积和树冠体积与林分变量和林木变量的基础上,利用幂函数建立了树冠表面积（CSA）和树冠体积(CV)的预估模型,同时还对林木材积生长量与CSA和CV进行了相关分析。研究结果表明：樟子松人工林树冠表面积和树冠体积随着林木胸径、树高和冠长的增大而增大,林木材积生长量与树冠表面积和树冠体积均明显呈线性关系。不同林分条件的樟子松人工林CSA和CV随林分年龄和胸径的增大而增大,CSA随林分密度的增大而减小,而CV与林分密度相关不紧密。林分树冠表面积和树冠体积预估模型的检验结果表明,两个模型的平均相对误差都在±8%之内,预估精度均大于91%,说明所建模型可以很好地预估樟子松人工林不同林分条件下的林木树冠表面积和树冠体积。     

Development processes and growth pattern of Pinus densiflora stands in central eastern Korea

Stand growth and developmental processes were investigated in Pinus densiflora Siebold et Zucc. stands of different ages in the central eastern region of Korea. Stands were inventoried and five trees per stand were sampled for stem analysis, age estimation, and growth analysis. More than 80% of sampled trees in a stand were established within 3–5 years, and most stands had a single cohort structure. The initial growth of pine seedlings was slow, but the height growth accelerated beyond 2–3 m height, 5–10 years after establishment. Linear growth was maintained until 10–12 m height, at which suppressed trees fell behind and might die out. The young stand was composed of pure pines, while few pine seedlings and saplings were found in the understory of older stands. The peak of diameter growth rate occurred around 5–15 years after tree establishment, implying that competition begins during that period. The pine stand development follows four stages: (1) the young stage when the growth rate increases and peaks; (2) the height competition stage when trees focus on height growth for light while maintaining a narrow DBH and height distribution; (3) the differentiation stage when suppressed trees die out, and the DBH distribution becomes wider; and (4) the mature stage when stands have a multi-canopy structure with a wide DBH and height distribution, while the understory is dominated by other tree species. The changes in growth rates and stand structure through forest development would be implemented to predict alterations of above-ground carbon sequestration rates.     

Structural and functional changes in Nothofagus pumilio forests along an altitudinal gradient in Tierra del Fuego,Argentina

Abstract. Structural (density, height, basal area, above‐ground tree biomass, leaf area index) and functional (leaf phenology, growth rate, fine litter fall, leaf decomposition) traits were quantified in four mature forests of Nothofagus pumilio (lenga) along an altitudinal sequence in Tierra del Fuego, Argentina. Three erect forest stands at 220, 440 and 540m and a krummholz stand at 640 m a.s.l. were selected. Along the altitudinal sequence, stem density increased while DBH, height, biomass, leaf‐size and growth period, mean growth rate and decay rate decreased. Dead stems increased and basal area and fine‐litter fall decreased with an increase in elevation among erect forests, but these trends inverted at krummholz. We suggest that krummholz is not only a morphological response to the adverse climate but is also a life form with functional advantages.     

The effect of two growth forms of Norway spruce on stand development and radiation interception: a model analysis

Summary Development of tree and canopy structure, and interception of photosynthetically active radiation (PAR) were studied in two model stands of Norway spruce consisting of trees with rapid versus slow site capture. The tree models were derived using Burger's (1953) sample tree material, from which two subpopulations of dominant trees were selected using the rate of horizontal site capture of the tree crowns as the criterion of division. The development of stand structure and interception of PAR were simulated in the two model canopies. The simulation period covered the period from tree age 15–80 years. The average development of the trees in the two subpopulations proved to be very different. The rapidly expanding trees were characterized by low mean within-crown needle area density and a long crown. The slowly expanding trees were smaller but had a higher mean within-crown needle area density. Up to approximately 40 years of age the stand of rapidly expanding trees contained more leaf area and intercepted more radiation than the stand of slowly expanding trees, when canopy cover was held constant. After 40 years of age this relationship was reversed due to the subsequent decline of leaf area in the stand of rapidly expanding trees and the increase in leaf area in the stand of slowly expanding trees. The biological relevancy and silvicultural implications of the simulated patterns of tree and stand development are discussed.     

人工长白落叶松立木叶面积预估模型

叶面积影响着树木干物质的生产,进而影响树木乃至整个林分的生长,而叶面积准确估计对分析树木和林分生长具有重要作用.本研究基于黑龙江省长白落叶松人工林中76株解析木数据,分别建立枝条层面和单木层面的叶面积预估模型.结果表明: 考虑样木层次随机效应的最优枝条叶面积混合效应模型包含lnBD(BD为枝条基径)、lnRDINC(RDINC为相对着枝深度)和lnCR(CR为冠长率)3个随机效应参数,具体形式为:lnBLA=β₁+(β₂+b₂)lnBD+(β₃+b₃)lnRDINC+β₄lnDBH+β₅lnHT/DBH+(β₆+b₆)lnCR,其中:β_i和b_i分别是模型的固定效应参数和随机效应参数;DBH为树木胸高处直径;HT/DBH为树高与胸径的比值.模型的修正决定系数(R_a²)为0.90,均方根误差(RMSE)为0.5477,平均偏差(ME)为-0.03,平均绝对偏差(MAE)为0.24,预测精度(P)为91%,枝条叶面积预估模型的预估效果较好.以枝条叶面积预估模型为基础,计算树冠叶面积并建立树冠叶面积预估模型,最终形式为:lnCLA=γ₀+γ₁lnDBH+γ₂CR,其中,γ_i为模型参数.似然比检验结果(P>0.05)说明该模型不用考虑样地层次的随机效应.本研究所建立的立木树冠叶面积预估模型的决定系数(R²)为0.87,RMSE为0.3847,拟合效果好,可以很好地预测人工长白落叶松立木树冠叶面积,为以后叶面积分布和光合作用的研究提供了理论基础.     

Patterns of density and structure of natural populations of Taxus baccata in the Hyrcanian forests of Iran

Iran's Hyrcanian forests cover a relatively narrow strip in the northeastern part of the country, and are among the most important and valuable ecosystems inscribed in United Nations Educational, Scientific and Cultural Organization (UNESCO) World Heritage List. European yew Taxus baccata L. is a Tertiary relict in the region and a long-lived dioecious tree with high ecological and economic importance in the Hyrcanian forests. To study the structure and analysing the survivorship of yew stands, we selected two forest reserves (Gazou and Afratakhteh) with European yew. In the two study areas, we established 165 0.1 ha circular sample plots (75 of the sample plots were in Gazou and 90 sample plots were in Afratakhteh) and measured three characteristics of each tree. The structure of the stands was quantified by means of 1) size distributions by diameter at breast height (DBH), 2) height classes, 3) and stand basal area. Comparison of the diameter distribution by DBH classes in two the forest reserves showed that there was no statistical difference between the two populations. The highest number of yew trees in the Afratakhteh and Gazou populations were in the 12–16 and 18–24 m height classes, respectively. In Gazou, abundance was greatest at 1000 m a.s.l. on mesic exposures and intermediate slopes (40–50%), whereas in Afratakhteh it was found at 1600–1620 m a.s.l. on east-facing areas with 55–65% slopes. Static life tables indicated that the first two age classes have particularily high mortality. Based on these results, we conclude that forest managers should support the regeneration of stands and increase survival rates by applying treatments such as thinning and selective removal of shrubs and saplings of other tree species.     

北京地区侧柏人工林密度效应

密度是影响森林尤其是人工林生长的重要因素,林冠层是森林生态系统与其他系统进行能量和物质交换的重要场所,树木及树冠生长对林分密度的响应关系可以看作是生物对环境变化产生的适应性现象。林分密度效应是生态学和森林培育学的重要研究内容之一。以23块8种不同密度梯度的北京山区侧柏人工幼龄林林分为研究对象分析其树木生长及树冠生长对密度的响应关系,其中树冠指标使用了参照了美国林务局(USDA)的树冠调查指标。研究结果表明:(1)林分平均胸径、平均树高和平均冠幅生长均随密度增大而减小,林分密度大于3000株/hm2时各指标减小的趋势变缓,使用异速生长模型可以很好地拟合这种变化关系;(2)随密度增加,树冠水平方向和垂直方向生长均到显著地抑制作用,树冠外形表现出由饱满冠型向狭长冠型变化的适应性现象;(3)使用树冠二维、三维指标与密度进行相关性分析可知树冠长度、树冠率等指标与林分密度呈负相关关系,树冠圆满度及树冠生产效率与密度表现出极显著正相关关系;(4)采用枝解析的方法研究了树枝长度、材积的平均生长量、连年生长量与密度的关系,结果表明幼龄期各生长量差异不大;(5)在建立冠幅模型时考虑了自变量间的多重共线性问题,所建的胸径单自变量二次方模型能够很好地预测侧柏人工幼龄林冠幅生长过程,模型相关系数R2为0.961。     

Spatial Distribution and Site-Specific Spraying of Main Sucking Pests of Elm Trees

Elm trees are important landscape trees and sucking insects weaken the elm trees and produce large amounts of honeydew. The main objectives of this study were to identify main honeydew-producing pests of elm trees and do site-specific spraying against these pests. To map the spatial distribution of the sucking pests in the large scale, the study area was divided into 40?×?40 m grids and one tree was chosen randomly from each grid (a total of 55 trees). These trees were sampled twice a year in 2011 and 2012. Each sample was a 30-cm branch terminal. Eight samples were taken from each tree in four cardinal directions and two canopy levels. The number of sucking insects and leaves of each sample were counted and recorded. Spatial analysis of the data was carried out using geostatistics. Kriging was used for producing prediction maps. Insecticide application was restricted to the regions with populations higher than threshold. To identify within-tree distribution of the honeydew-producing pests, six and four elm trees were chosen in 2011 and 2012 respectively, and sampled weekly. These trees were sampled as described previously. European elm scale (EES), Gossyparia spuria (Modeer) and two species of aphids were the dominant honeydew-producing pests. The results revealed that the effects of direction, canopy level and their interactions on insect populations were not statistically significant (P?<?0.05). Site-specific spraying decreased the amount of insecticides used by ca. 20%, while satisfactory control of the sucking pests and honeydew excretion was obtained. Considering the environmental and economic benefits of site-specific spraying, it is worth doing more complementary works in this area.     

Tree mortality and effects of release from competition in an old‐growth Fagus‐Abies‐Picea stand

Abstract. In a montane mixed Fagus‐Abies‐Picea forest in Babia Gora National Park (southern Poland), the dynamics of an old‐growth stand were studied by combining an 8‐yr annual census of trees in a 1‐ha permanent sample plot with radial increments of Abies and Picea growing in the central part of the plot. The mortality among the canopy trees was relatively high (10% in 8 yr), but the basal area increment of surviving trees slightly exceeded the losses caused by tree death. DBH increment was positively correlated with initial diameter in Abies and Picea, but not in Fagus. For individual trees smaller than the median height, basal area increment was positively related to the basal area of old snags and the basal area of recently deceased trees in their neighbourhood, but negatively related to the basal area of live trees. Dendrochronological analysis of the past growth patterns revealed numerous periods of release and suppression, which were usually not synchronized among the trees within a 0.3 ha plot. The almost normal distribution of canopy tree DBH and the small number of young individuals in the plot indicated that stand dynamics were synchronized over a relatively large area and, hence, were consistent with the developmental phase concept. On the other hand, the lack of synchronization among periods of growth acceleration in individual mature Abies and Picea trees conforms more closely to the gap‐dynamics paradigm.     

Maintenance cost, toppling risk and size of trees in a self-thinning stand

Wind routinely topples trees during storms, and the likelihood that a tree is toppled depends critically on its allometry. Yet none of the existing theories to explain tree allometry consider wind drag on tree canopies. Since leaf area index in crowded, self-thinning stands is independent of stand density, the drag force per unit land can also be assumed to be independent of stand density, with only canopy height influencing the total toppling moment. Tree stem dimensions and the self-thinning biomass can then be computed by further assuming that the risk of toppling over and stem maintenance per unit land area are independent of stand density, and that stem maintenance cost is a linear function of stem surface area and sapwood volume. These assumptions provide a novel way to understand tree allometry and lead to a self-thinning line relating tree biomass and stand density with a power between −3/2 and −2/3 depending on the ratio of maintenance of sapwood and stem surface.     

Angle distribution of foliage in individual Chamaecyparis obtusa canopies and effect of angle on diffuse light penetration

 The vertical distribution of foliage angle and area of three Chamaecyparis obtusa trees was determined by the triangle method, which calculates foliage geometry using measured coordinates of the leaf ”corners”, in a 43-year-old plantation in central Japan. Vertical distribution patterns of leaf area were different depending on tree size, but the boundary heights, which divide the canopy into sunlit and shaded parts, were similar in the three sample trees. The value of the average foliage angle [I(Z)] at a given depth (Z) from the tip of the stem decreased continually from the upper to lower layers within the canopy. The vertical patterns of changes in I(Z) were different among the three trees, but could be expressed by the following allometric equation as a function of depth.

木荷树干夜间水分补充的季节动态及其与树形特征和叶片生物量的关系

利用热消散探针(TDP)法对位于中国科学院华南植物园的木荷(Schima superba)人工纯林的15株样树进行了树干液流监测, 并结合光合有效辐射(PAR)和土壤含水量的测定, 探讨了不同季节的夜间水分补充量与树形特征和叶片生物量的关系。结果表明: 1)夜间液流活动时间与PAR同步, 但其结束时间不受PAR影响; 春、夏季夜间液流明显比秋冬季活跃。2)春、夏、秋季的夜间水分补充量与样树的胸径、冠幅、边材面积、叶片生物量呈极显著线性关系, 与树高仅在春季呈显著线性关系。3)春、夏季的夜间水分补充量主要受样树冠幅影响, 成正相关; 秋季主要受胸径影响, 成正相关; 冬季仅受树高影响。该试验说明木荷夜间水分补充与树形特征、叶片生物量关系密切, 但起主要作用的树形特征和具体关系具有季节差别。     

水杉人工林建植50年后的分化特征

通过种群统计学、格局分析和树干解析等对50 a生水杉人工林林分的分化特征进行了研究.结果表明:小个体林木占有相对多数(>50.4%);林木分化现象显著,特别是树高与材积的分化十分突出,林分已出现一定强度的自然稀疏;基于TSTRAT程式的林木分级结果表明,亚优势木占绝对优势(45.7%),其树冠构成该林分的主林冠;竞争指数依次为优势木级<亚优势木级<中庸木级<被压木级,各级的基尼系数基本上低于全林总计;优势木绝对生长率和相对生长率在林分成熟期以前均大于标准木,且胸径速生期持续时问较标准木长;林分高度生长受压抑程度低于胸径生长;林木分布格局总体呈均匀型,与造林初始基本一致;优势木和被压木为聚集分布,中庸木和枯死木为随机散布,亚优势木的分布型则介于随机和聚集之间.林木种群分化既表现在个体大小的不均等性上,也表现在空间分布的非匀质性上.目前林分结构特征的主要成因可以归结为密度压力下的种内竞争.     

Understanding changes in black (Picea mariana) and white spruce (Picea glauca) foliage biomass and leaf area characteristics

Key message

Growth conditions related to inter-tree competition greatly influence black and white spruce foliage biomass and projected leaf area characteristics.

Abstract

Foliage characteristics such as biomass and area are important among other reasons because they can be related to tree growth. Despite their economic and ecologic importance, equations to characterize foliage biomass and projected area of black (Picea mariana (Miller) BSP) and white (Picea glauca (Moench) Voss) spruces are sparse. Total foliage biomass and projected leaf area, foliage biomass and leaf area density, and relative vertical distribution of black and white spruces foliage biomass and leaf area were modelled with linear and nonlinear mixed effect models. A total of 65 white spruces and 57 black spruces were destructively sampled at four different locations in Alberta, Québec, and Ontario, Canada. Our results show that for each species, total tree foliage biomass and projected leaf area is proportional to stem diameter, total height, and crown length. The addition of crown length in the equations improved the precision of the predictions of total foliage biomass for both species and diminishes greatly the site level random effect. An increase in DBH for black spruce and in the DBH to total height ratio for white spruce skewed the relative vertical foliage biomass distribution toward the base of the living crown. According to our results, growth conditions or tree development stage influence both foliage biomass and leaf area characteristics of black and white spruces. Our results emphasize the importance of inter-tree competition on foliage biomass characteristics.     

Estimating Canopy Structure in an Amazon Forest from Laser Range Finder and IKONOS Satellite Observations1

Canopy structural data can be used for biomass estimation and studies of carbon cycling, disturbance, energy balance, and hydrological processes in tropical forest ecosystems. Scarce information on canopy dimensions reflects the difficulties associated with measuring crown height, width, depth, and area in tall, humid tropical forests. New field and spaceborne observations provide an opportunity to acquire these measurements, but the accuracy and reliability of the methods are unknown. We used a handheld laser range finder to estimate tree crown height, diameter, and depth in a lowland tropical forest in the eastern Amazon, Brazil, for a sampling of 300 trees stratified by diameter at breast height (DBH). We found significant relationships between DBH and both tree height and crown diameter derived from the laser measurements. We also quantified changes in crown shape between tree height classes, finding a significant but weak positive trend between crown depth and width. We then compared the field‐based measurements of crown diameter and area to estimates derived manually from panchromatic 0.8 m spatial resolution IKONOS satellite imagery. Median crown diameter derived from satellite observations was 78 percent greater than that derived from field‐based laser measurements. The statistical distribution of crown diameters from IKONOS was biased toward larger trees, probably due to merging of smaller tree crowns, underestimation of understory trees, and overestimation of individual crown dimensions. The median crown area derived from IKONOS was 65 percent higher than the value modeled from field‐based measurements. We conclude that manual interpretation of IKONOS satellite data did not accurately estimate distributions of tree crown dimensions in a tall tropical forest of eastern Amazonia. Other methods will be needed to more accurately estimate crown dimensions from high spatial resolution satellite imagery.     

Crown profile of foliage area characterized with the Weibull distribution in a hinoki (Chamaecyparis obtusa) stand

Summary Thirten sample trees of various sizes in a 29-year-old hinoki [Chamaecyparis obtusa (Sieb, et Zucc.) Endl.] plantation were felled and subjected to the stratified clip technique. Crown profile of foliage area fitted well with the Weibull distribution. The crown profile tended to be more skewed toward the top of crowns in smaller trees than in larger trees. This tendency was reflected in the value of the shape parameter of the Weibull distribution. The shape parameter ranged from 1.73 to 3.23 and gradually increased up to an asymptotic value with an increase of stem diameter at breast height. The scale parameter of the distribution ranged from 1.0 to 4.2 and tended to increase in proportion to stem diameter at breast height. Foliage area of a tree correlated well with stem diameter at breast height through an ordinary allometric equation. Tree height could be approximated fairly well by a generalized allometric equation as a function of stem diameter at breast height. On the basis of the census of stem diameter at breast height, canopy profile could be constructed synthesizing crown profiles of foliage area for individual trees in the stand. Leaf area index was estimated to be 6.6 ha ha^–1.