Agricultural biotechnologies in developing countries and their possible contribution to food security

Latest FAO figures indicate that an estimated 925 million people are undernourished in 2010, representing almost 16% of the population in developing countries. Looking to the future, there are also major challenges ahead from the rapidly changing socio-economic environment (increasing world population and urbanisation, and dietary changes) and climate change.Promoting agriculture in developing countries is the key to achieving food security, and it is essential to act in four ways: to increase investment in agriculture, broaden access to food, improve governance of global trade, and increase productivity while conserving natural resources. To enable the fourth action, the suite of technological options for farmers should be as broad as possible, including agricultural biotechnologies. Agricultural biotechnologies represent a broad range of technologies used in food and agriculture for the genetic improvement of plant varieties and animal populations, characterisation and conservation of genetic resources, diagnosis of plant or animal diseases and other purposes. Discussions about agricultural biotechnology have been dominated by the continuing controversy surrounding genetic modification and its resulting products, genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The polarised debate has led to non-GMO biotechnologies being overshadowed, often hindering their development and application.Extensive documentation from the FAO international technical conference on Agricultural Biotechnologies in Developing Countries (ABDC-10), that took place in Guadalajara, Mexico, on 1–4 March 2010, gave a very good overview of the many ways that different agricultural biotechnologies are being used to increase productivity and conserve natural resources in the crop, livestock, fishery, forestry and agro-industry sectors in developing countries. The conference brought together about 300 policy-makers, scientists and representatives of intergovernmental and international non-governmental organisations, including delegations from 42 FAO Member States. At the end of ABDC-10, the Member States reached a number of key conclusions, agreeing, inter alia, that FAO and other relevant international organisations and donors should significantly increase their efforts to support the strengthening of national capacities in the development and appropriate use of pro-poor agricultural biotechnologies.     

1. The importance of genetic resources in plant breeding

Modern agricultural technology and the introduction of new high-yielding varieties are largely eliminating the wide range of crop genetic diversity that has evolved during the five to ten thousand years since food plants were first domesticated. Related wild species are also on the decline because of new land use policies. These gene pools (or what is left of them) are generally spoken of as genetic resources, and are vitally needed in the creation of new crop varieties by plant breeders. Wild species and land races often furnish genes conferring resistance to diseases and pests and adaptation to environmental stresses which cannot be found in the modern crop varieties.
The study of genetic diversity of crops, its storage in gene banks or in natural reserves, its evaluation and enhancement, are briefly described. The genetic resources work of the Food and Agriculture Organisation of the United Nations (FAO) and other international agencies such as the International Board for Plant Genetic Resources (IBPGR) is outlined.     

Assessment of genetic diversity of accessions in Brassicaceae genetic resources by frequency distribution analysis of S haplotypes

Plant genetic resources are important sources of genetic variation for improving crop varieties as breeding materials. Conservation of such resources of allogamous species requires maintenance of the genetic diversity within each accession to avoid inbreeding depression and loss of rare alleles. For assessment of genetic diversity in the self-incompatibility locus (S locus), which is critically involved in the chance of mating, we developed a dot-blot genotyping method for self-incompatibility (S) haplotypes and applied it to indigenous, miscellaneous landraces of Brassica rapa, provided by the IPK Gene Bank (Gatersleben, Germany) and the Tohoku University Brassica Seed Bank (Sendai, Japan), in which landraces are maintained using different population sizes. This method effectively determined S genotypes of more than 500 individuals from the focal landraces. Although our results suggest that these landraces might possess sufficient numbers of S haplotypes, the strong reduction of frequencies of recessive S haplotypes occurred, probably owing to genetic drift. Based on these results, we herein discuss an appropriate way to conserve genetic diversity of allogamous plant resources in a gene bank.     

Genetic conservation: our evolutionary responsibility

The conservation of the crop varieties of traditional agriculture in the centers of genetic diversity is essential to provide genetic resources for plant improvement. These resources are acutely threatened by rapid agricultural development which is essential for the welfare of millions. Methodologies for genetic conservation have been worked out which are both effective and economical. Urgent action is needed to collect and preserve irreplaceable genetic resources.

Wild species, increasingly endangered by loss of habitats, will depend on organized protection for their survival. On a long term basis this is feasible only within natural communities in a state of continuing evolution, hence there is an urgent need for exploration and clarification of the genetic principles of conservation. Gene pools of wild species are increasingly needed for various uses, from old and new industries to recreation. But the possibility of a virtual end to the evolution of species of no direct use to man raises questions of responsibility and ethics.

     

Genetic analysis of Phytophthora infestans populations in the Nordic European countries reveals high genetic variability

Late blight, caused by the oomycete Phytophthora infestans, is the most important disease of potato (Solanum tuberosum). The pathogen is highly adaptable and to get an overview of the genetic variation in the Nordic countries, Denmark, Finland, Norway and Sweden we have analyzed 200 isolates from different fields using nine simple-sequence repeat (SSR) markers. Forty-nine alleles were detected among the nine SSR loci and isolates from all four Nordic countries shared the most common alleles across the loci. In total 169 multilocus genotypes (based on seven loci) were identified among 191 isolates. The genotypic diversities, quantified by a normalized Shannon's diversity index (H(s)), were 0.95 for the four Nordic countries. The low F(ST) value of 0.04 indicates that the majority of variation is found within the four Nordic countries. The large number of genotypes and the frequency distribution of mating types (60% A1) support the hypothesis that sexual reproduction is contributing notably to the genetic variation of P. infestans in the Nordic countries.     

Agricultural biotechnologies in developing countries and their possible contribution to food security

Latest FAO figures indicate that an estimated 925 million people are undernourished in 2010, representing almost 16% of the population in developing countries. Looking to the future, there are also major challenges ahead from the rapidly changing socio-economic environment (increasing world population and urbanisation, and dietary changes) and climate change. Promoting agriculture in developing countries is the key to achieving food security, and it is essential to act in four ways: to increase investment in agriculture, broaden access to food, improve governance of global trade, and increase productivity while conserving natural resources. To enable the fourth action, the suite of technological options for farmers should be as broad as possible, including agricultural biotechnologies. Agricultural biotechnologies represent a broad range of technologies used in food and agriculture for the genetic improvement of plant varieties and animal populations, characterisation and conservation of genetic resources, diagnosis of plant or animal diseases and other purposes. Discussions about agricultural biotechnology have been dominated by the continuing controversy surrounding genetic modification and its resulting products, genetically modified organisms (GMOs). The polarised debate has led to non-GMO biotechnologies being overshadowed, often hindering their development and application. Extensive documentation from the FAO international technical conference on Agricultural Biotechnologies in Developing Countries (ABDC-10), that took place in Guadalajara, Mexico, on 1-4 March 2010, gave a very good overview of the many ways that different agricultural biotechnologies are being used to increase productivity and conserve natural resources in the crop, livestock, fishery, forestry and agro-industry sectors in developing countries. The conference brought together about 300 policy-makers, scientists and representatives of intergovernmental and international non-governmental organisations, including delegations from 42 FAO Member States. At the end of ABDC-10, the Member States reached a number of key conclusions, agreeing, inter alia, that FAO and other relevant international organisations and donors should significantly increase their efforts to support the strengthening of national capacities in the development and appropriate use of pro-poor agricultural biotechnologies.     

Diversity of North European oat analyzed by SSR, AFLP and DArT markers

Oat is an important crop in Nordic countries both for feed and human consumption. Maintaining a high level of genetic diversity is essential for both breeding and agronomy. A panel of 94 oat accessions was used in this study, including 24 museum accessions over 100- to 120-year old and 70 genebank accessions from mainly Nordic countries and Germany, covering different breeding periods. Sixty-one polymorphic SSR, 201 AFLP and 1056 DArT markers were used to evaluate the past and present genetic diversity of the Nordic gene pool. Norwegian accessions showed the highest diversity, followed by Swedish and Finnish, with German accessions the least diverse. In addition, the Nordic accessions appeared to be highly interrelated and distinct from the German, reflecting a frequent germplasm exchange and interbreeding among Nordic countries. A significant loss of diversity happened at the transition from landraces and old cultivars to modern cultivars. Modern oat originated from only a segment of the landraces and left the remainder, especially black oat, unused. However, no significant overall diversity reduction was found during modern breeding periods, although fluctuation of diversity indices was observed. The narrow genetic basis of the modern Nordic gene pool calls for increasing genetic diversity through cultivar introduction and prebreeding based on neglected sources like the Nordic black oat.     

Challenges in genetic resources policy making: some lessons from participatory policy research with a special reference to Ethiopia

It is widely recognized that developing countries lack technical and institutional capacity to effectively implement genetic resources policy. This has led Bioversity International (the then IPGRI) to initiate a project called Genetic Resources Policy Initiative (GRPI) in six countries (Ethiopia, Egypt, Zambia, Peru, Vietnam and Nepal). Drawing from the literature and experiences of this project, this paper has attempted to document some of the lessons from the project and present the issues and challenges that need to be addressed for effective genetic resources policy. Recognizing its cross-cutting nature, the paper has argued that genetic resources policy has to be part of the broader development agenda to effectively deal with trade-offs and harmonize the conflicts. Essentially, the important policy question is to strike the balance and simultaneously promote the diversity of genetic resources and welfare outcomes. The major thrust of GRPI has been the multi-disciplinary, -sectoral, and -stakeholder (3M) approach. Despite all its theoretical merits, its implementation has been a serious challenge in practice. This has, among others, been due to ‘‘A project for all is a project for none’’ dilemma. Engaging decision makers in 3M deliberations has revealed that many of them tend to think that maintaining genetic diversity promotes traditional farming and retards agricultural development. Clearly, addressing each of these challenges and policy loopholes requires innovation in a diversity of institutions.     

Nordic brothers before strange others: pan-national boundary making in the post-war naturalization policies of the Nordic countries

The naturalization policies of Sweden, Denmark, Finland and Norway differentiate between non-Nordic and Nordic citizens. Nordic citizens can obtain citizenship in other Nordic countries by notification, and the residency requirement for naturalization by application is considerably lower for Nordic citizens than it is for non-Nordic applicants. The privileges of Nordic citizens in the naturalization policies of the Nordic countries is a heritage of nineteenth-century pan-Scandinavianism, continued and expanded upon with post-war Nordism. Nordism, the idea of a common Nordic culture and community, has ideologically underpinned the establishment of a pan-national Nordist citizenship regime that constructs ethno-culturally close Nordic brothers as more belonging in the Nordic countries than alien, ‘non-Nordic’, others. The article explores change and continuity in pan-national Nordic boundary making by analysing the historical interplay between ideas on Scandinavian and Nordic kinship and naturalization policy in the Nordic countries.     

The Nordic Vegetation Survey - concepts and perspectives

Abstract. The background of the Nordic Vegetation Survey is outlined and the concepts for this international collaboration project are reviewed. The project includes, so far, institutions in Denmark, Faeroes, Finland, Norway and Sweden. We are setting up a common basis for a vegetation database, with a Nordic species list, exchange of data and joint revisions of important Nordic vegetation types. Progress in the Nordic Vegetation Survey is described and the future perspectives indicated.     

In situ conservation of crop genetic resources through maintenance of traditional farming systems

A strategy is suggested for in situ conservation of crop genetic resources whereby conservation efforts are linked to rural development projects in Third World countries. We describe development projects that emphasize preservation of traditional farming systems and succeed in sustaining production by relying on the maintenance of biological and genetic diversity in these systems. Basing agricultural development efforts on indigenous knowledge, technology, and social organization can provide important guidelines for the design of cropping systems that allow lowincome farmers to produce subsistence and cash crops without dependence on external inputs and seed supplies. By incorporating landraces and wild relatives of crops into these cropping systems, major achievements in the conservation of crop genetic resources can be obtained.     

Diversity changes in an intensively bred wheat germplasm during the 20th century

Plant breeding may lead to narrowing genetic diversity of cultivatedcrops, thereby affecting sustained selection gains in crop improvement. A totalof 47 microsatellite primer pairs (mapped to the 21 wheat genetic linkagegroups) were assessed in 75 Nordic spring wheat cultivars bred during the20^th century to determine the variation of genetic diversity in thisgermplasm throughout this period. The number of alleles ranged from one toseven, with an average of 3.6 alleles per microsatellite marker. A dendrogramresulting from analysis of the matrix of dissimilarities using the unweightedpair-group method with arithmetic average discriminated all cultivars andrevealed clusters of accessions released both from some geographical area inthe Nordic Region and the breeding era, i.e. before and after World War II. Geneticdiversity in this wheat material increased from 1900 to 1940 and again from1960 onwards. In between these two periods there was a loss of diversity, whichcould not be explained by changes in a single genome or in one or few chromosomesets. Effects of different selection within countries are revealed by cleardifferences in frequency of some microsatellite alleles. In adition somemicrosatellite alleles were lost during the first quarter of the century whileseveral new alleles were introduced in the Nordic spring wheat material duringthe second half of the century. These results suggest that genetic diversity inNordic spring wheat was enhanced by plant breeding in the first quarter of the20^th century and following a decrease during the second quarter wasincreased again by plant breeding.     

Utilization and conservation of genetic resources: International projects for sustainable agriculture

Foreign assistance helps developing countries to achieve economic growth through wise use of natural resources. Conservation interventions and sustainable use of natural resources play a central role in this development. Conservation and utilization of genetic resources have traditionally proceeded as separate approaches. A conceptual approach to project design is presented encouraging greater interaction between those conserving crop genetic resources and those seeking their economic application in a sound land-use management plan. Projects illustrating this approach are being supported by the Agency for International Development. They suggest a paradigm for research and development allowing interdisciplinary activities targeting sustainable agriculture development.     

The Influence of Agricultural Trade and Livestock Production on the Global Phosphorus Cycle

Trends of increasing agricultural trade, increased concentration of livestock production systems, and increased human consumption of livestock products influence the distribution of nutrients across the global landscape. Phosphorus (P) represents a unique management challenge as we are rapidly depleting mineable reserves of this essential and non-renewable resource. At the same time, its overuse can lead to pollution of aquatic ecosystems. We analyzed the relative contributions of food crop, feed crop, and livestock product trade to P flows through agricultural soils for 12 countries from 1961 to 2007. Due to the intensification of agricultural production, average soil surface P balances more than tripled from 6 to 21 kg P ha⁻¹ between 1961 and 2007 for the 12 study countries. Consequently, countries that are primarily agricultural exporters carried increased risks for water pollution or, for Argentina, reduced soil fertility due to soil P mining to support exports. In 2007, nations imported food and feed from regions with higher apparent P fertilizer use efficiencies than if those crops were produced domestically. However, this was largely because imports were sourced from regions depleting soil P resources to support export crop production. In addition, the pattern of regional specialization and intensification of production systems also reduced the potential to recycle P resources, with greater implications for livestock production than crop production. In a globalizing world, it will be increasingly important to integrate biophysical constraints of our natural resources and environmental impacts of agricultural systems into trade policy and agreements and to develop mechanisms that move us closer to more equitable management of non-renewable resources such as phosphorus.     

Disease Recording Systems and Herd Health Schemes for Production Diseases

Disease recording of cattle is compulsory in Sweden and Norway. Sweden and Denmark also have mandatory disease recording for swine, whereas Finland and Norway only have compulsory recording of infectious diseases. Both compulsory and voluntary systems are databased, the first ones developed in the 1970's.Disease recording at pig slaughtering is somewhat older. The veterinary practitioner, and often also the farmer, can report treated cases as well as fertility disturbances to the systems. Disease recording at slaughter is carried out by veterinarians and inspection officers. The databases are handled by the veterinary authorities or the agricultural organisations in each country. Costs are defrayed by the authorities and/or the agricultural industry. The farmers receive periodic reports. Data are stored for three to ten years, often longer. Affiliation to animal health schemes for cattle or swine is voluntary. In Sweden and Denmark (cattle) they are run within the scope of government regulations. Affiliation to animal health programmes may also be demanded by organisations within the agricultural industry. These organisations are also responsible for the administration of the programmes. Costs to take part in herd health schemes are covered by the farmers themselves. In certain cases, grants are received from agricultural organisations, authorities, or the European Union. Recording of diseases and the format of animal health schemes in the Nordic countries are described here in order to illustrate the possibilities to compare data between countries.     

中国作物种质资源引进与流出研究

引进国外种质、促进粮食生产,对中国至关重要。中国每年从世界各地引进大量的作物遗传资源,如水稻、小麦、玉米、马铃薯、甘薯,当然主要是从国际农业研究磋商组织(CGIAR)各中心引进的。同时,中国也向国际农业研究磋商组织各中心和其他国家提供了许多作物遗传资源(如大豆),为世界做出了巨大贡献。种质资源的流动有利于中国,因此中国应该与国际农业研究磋商组织各中心和其他国家加强合作,组织专家系统研究并争取尽快加入《粮食和农业植物遗传资源国际条约》,强化统一管理,规范种质资源引进与输出,建立共享机制,推进种质资源共享。     

关于IUCN和WWF联合植物保护研究计划工作的成就和今后的任务

植物是人类和动物生活所必需,由于缺乏长远规划的目标,无计划的滥用已导致许多植物灭绝或陷入濒临灭绝的境地。为此,IUCN—WWF联合建立了“植物保护研究计划”,并把其列入他们各自工作的重点。主要工作内容有下列各项:1)传播信息宣传群众;2)建立必要的植物保护的工作条件:3)植物遗传资源的保护:4)野生经济植物的保护:5)加强植物园开展植物保护的工作条件:6)促进植物丰富的国家开展植物保护工作。     

Impact of agronomic uncertainty in biomass production and endogenous commodity prices on cellulosic biofuel feedstock composition

This study evaluates the effect of agronomic uncertainty on bioenergy crop production as well as endogenous commodity and biomass prices on the feedstock composition of cellulosic biofuels under a binding mandate in the United States. The county‐level simulation model focuses on both field crops (corn, soybean, and wheat) and biomass feedstocks (corn stover, wheat straw, switchgrass, and Miscanthus). In addition, pasture serves as a potential area for bioenergy crop production. The economic model is calibrated to 2022 in terms of yield, crop demand, and baseline prices and allocates land optimally among the alternative crops given the binding cellulosic biofuel mandate. The simulation scenarios differ in terms of bioenergy crop type (switchgrass and Miscanthus) and yield, biomass production inputs, and pasture availability. The cellulosic biofuel mandates range from 15 to 60 billion L. The results indicate that the 15 and 30 billion L mandates in the high production input scenarios for switchgrass and Miscanthus are covered entirely by agricultural residues. With the exception of the low production input for Miscanthus scenario, the share of agricultural residues is always over 50% for all other scenarios including the 60 billion L mandate. The largest proportion of agricultural land dedicated to either switchgrass or Miscanthus is found in the southern Plains and the southeast. Almost no bioenergy crops are grown in the Midwest across all scenarios. Changes in the prices for the three commodities are negligible for cellulosic ethanol mandates because most of the mandate is met with agricultural residues. The lessons learned are that (1) the share of agricultural residue in the feedstock mix is higher than previously estimated and (2) for a given mandate, the feedstock composition is relatively stable with the exception of one scenario.