Effect of competition on salivary cortisol, immunoglobulin A, and upper respiratory tract infections in elite young soccer players

The present study examined the effect of a 20-day period of competition on salivary cortisol, mucosal immunity, and upper respiratory tract infections (URTI) in young male soccer players (n = 14). The players were monitored during the main under-19 Brazilian soccer championship, in which 7 matches were played in 20 days. Saliva samples were collected in the morning of each match and analyzed for cortisol and immunoglobulin A (IgA). Signs and symptoms of URTI were assessed across the study and a rating of perceived exertion (RPE) was obtained for each match. Compared with match 1, a significant increase in player RPE was observed in matches 4-7 (p < 0.05). Significant (p < 0.05) increases in the reporting of URTI occurred between matches 2 and 3, and 6 and 7, and this was accompanied by significant decreases in salivary IgA levels. Significant (p < 0.05) correlations were also seen between the individual reports of URTI and the decrease in IgA levels in match 2 (r = -0.60) and match 6 (r = -0.65). These results suggest that decrements in mucosal immunity, as measured by salivary IgA concentrations, may lead to a greater incidence of URTI in elite young soccer players. It may be speculated that the physiological and psychological stressors imposed by training and competition in a short timeframe are major contributing factors to these responses. Thus, the monitoring of salivary IgA could provide a useful and noninvasive approach for predicting URTI occurrences in young athletes during short-term competitions, especially if frequent sampling and rapid measurements are made.     

SALIVARY IL-21 AND IGA RESPONSES TO A COMPETITIVE MATCH IN ELITE BASKETBALL PLAYERS

Athletes engaged in strenuous training might experience transient immune suppression that could lead to greater incidence of upper respiratory tract infections (URTI). Since interleukin 21 (IL-21) stimulates immunoglobulin A (IgA) secreting cells and a low level of this immunoglobulin is associated with increased incidence of URTI, the aim of the present study was to investigate the effect of a basketball match on salivary cortisol (sC), salivary IL-21 (sIL-21) and salivary IgA (sIgA) levels. Twenty male basketball players participated in an official game in two teams (10 players in each team). The saliva samples were collected before the warm-up and approximately 10-15 min after the end of the match and were analysed by ELISA methods. sC concentration increased significantly after the match while sIL-21 level was reduced (p < 0.05). In opposition to the study''s hypothesis, sIgA level did not change in response to the match. The present findings suggest that a basketball match is sufficiently stressful to elevate sC concentration and attenuates the sIL-21 output without compromising the sIgA level. It is reasonable to speculate that the stability of sIgA acute responses to the match, despite the decrement in sIL-21, indicates that other mechanisms rather than IL-21 stimulating B cell proliferation/differentiation might modulate IgA concentration and secretion rate.     

Cortisol and stress responses during a game and practice in female collegiate soccer players

The purpose of this study was to compare the cortisol responses from a regular season game and a typical practice session in female National Collegiate Athletic Association Division I collegiate soccer players. Eighteen players were assigned to 2 groups, 10 starters and 8 nonstarters, depending on their playing time. Salivary cortisol concentration, as well as competitive sport anxiety (somatic and cognitive anxiety, self-confidence), was monitored before and after 1 regular season game and 1 typical practice session. Although salivary cortisol levels increased postgame for both starters (+250%) and nonstarters (+140%), they increased to a greater extent for the starters. Practice salivary cortisol did not significantly change (p > 0.05). Cognitive and somatic anxiety was greater pre- and postgame when compared with the pre- and postpractice scores, respectively. These data clearly demonstrate the psychological and physiological differences between soccer competition and practice in collegiate women. It appears that both physiological and psychological variables combine to contribute to the large stress hormone response to an actual competitive game.     

Salivary cortisol and immunoglobulin a responses to simulated and official Jiu-Jitsu matches

The aim of this study was to compare the salivary cortisol (sC) and the salivary immunoglobulin A (sIgA) responses to simulated and official Brazilian Jiu-Jitsu (BJJ) matches. Saliva samples were collected from 9 male BJJ athletes before (pre) and after (post) 2 simulated matches (SMs) and 2 official matches (OMs) performed during 2 different competitions. Salivary cortisol and sIgA concentrations (absolute concentration of sIgA [sIgAabs] and the secretion rate of sIgA [sIgArate]) were measured by an enzyme-linked immunosorbent assay. For sC, there was an effect of condition (SM vs. OM) (p < 0.05) and a time effect (pre and post) (p < 0.05). The sC was lower during SMs as compared with that during OMs and lower at premeasurement when compared with postmeasurement. No changes were observed for sIgA measurements. In summary, both SMs and official BJJ matches can increase sC levels. Moreover, the higher sC resting levels, observed before OMs, suggest that psychological factors associated with high physical-physiological demands from official BJJ competitions maximize stress hormone responses. In addition, the present findings suggest that the acute effect of BJJ matches on mucosal immunity is minimal, and it seems unlikely that changes in cortisol play a major role in the alterations in sIgA levels in response to BJJ matches. The findings of this study suggest that the use of sC can provide valuable information for coaches regarding athletes' responses to competition. In addition, psychological strategies should be implemented before events, to improve the manner in which BJJ athletes cope with the stress inherent to official matches.     

Does small-sided-games’ court area influence metabolic,perceptual, and physical performance parameters of young elite basketball players?

The purpose of this study was to investigate the effect of court size on physiological responses and physical performance of young elite basketball players. Twelve male basketball players (18.6 ± 0.5 years; 88.8 ± 14.5 kg; 192.6 ± 6.5 cm) from an under-19 team performed two small-sided games (matches) with different court areas (28x15 m and 28x9 m; 28x15 and 28x9 protocols). The number of players (3x3) was kept the same in each protocol. The players performed a repeated-sprint ability (RSA) test before and after each match. Blood lactate concentration was collected before (pre) and after (post) the matches, and the session rating of perceived exertion (session-RPE) was determined 30 minutes after the match. Best and mean time in the RSA test were not different between the 28x15 and the 28x9 match protocols (p > 0.05). A significant difference was observed for lactate concentration from pre- to post-match (p < 0.05) in both protocols (28x15 and 28x9); however, there was no significant interaction between protocols. A similar session-RPE mean score (28x15: 7.2 ± 1.4 and 28x9: 6.6 ± 1.4) was detected for both protocols (p > 0.05, ES=0.41). In summary, the results of the current study suggest that the different court areas induced similar responses. Although there was no significant difference in effort perception, players tended to perceive a greater effort in the larger court size.     

Acute effects of small-sided games combined with running drills on internal and external loads in young soccer players

The purpose of this study was to compare the effects of regular small-sided games (SSGreg) and SSGs combined with running drills (SSGcom) on players’ internal and external loads. Eighteen young male soccer players (average age: 18.2 ± 0.5 years) participated in 3 vs. 3 and 4 vs. 4 games, under both SSGreg and SSGcom conditions. SSGreg bouts were played for 4 minutes without additional running drills, while SSGcom bouts consisted of 3 min 30 s SSG and 15 s running before and after the bout, making the duration of each bout 4 minutes. During all SSGs, measurements of heart rate (HR) responses as well as distances covered in four different speed zones – walking (WLK), low-intensity (LIR), moderate-intensity (MIR) and high-intensity running (HIR) – were recorded. Technical characteristics were monitored during the SSGs, and the rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and blood lactate (La-) responses were determined at the end of each SSG condition. Compared to the SSGreg in both 3 vs. 3 and 4 vs. 4 formats, the SSGcom condition resulted in higher La- and RPE responses (p < 0.05), greater distance covered at MIR and HIR speeds and greater total distance (p < 0.05). The results of this study show that replacing 30 s within the 4-min bouts of SSGs (both 3- and 4-a-side) by 2 x 15 s of running drills is effective in increasing internal (La- and RPE) and external loads (MIR and HIR) without a significant decrease in total passes and successful passes in young soccer players.     

Quantitation of resistance training using the session rating of perceived exertion method

The purpose of this study was to apply the session rating of perceived exertion (RPE) method, which is known to work with aerobic training, to resistance training. Ten men (26.1 +/- 10.2 years) and 10 women (22.2 +/- 1.8 years), habituated to both aerobic and resistance training, performed 3 x 30 minutes aerobic training bouts on the cycle ergometer at intensities of 56%, 71%, and 83% Vo(2) peak and then rated the global intensity using the session RPE technique (e.g., 0-10) 30 minutes after the end of the session. They also performed 3 x 30 minutes resistance exercise bouts with 2 sets of 6 exercises at 50% (15 repetitions), 70% (10 repetitions), and 90% (4 repetitions) of 1 repetition maximum (1RM). After each set the exercisers rated the intensity of that exercise using the RPE scale. Thirty minutes after the end of the bout they rated the intensity of the whole session and of only the lifting components of the session, using the session RPE method. The rated intensity of exercise increased with the %Vo(2) peak and the %1RM. There was a general correspondence between the relative intensity (%Vo(2) peak and % 1RM) and the session RPE. Between different types of resistance exercise at the same relative intensity, the average RPE after each lift varied widely. The resistance training session RPE increased as the intensity increased despite a decrease in the total work performed (p < 0.05). Mean RPE and session RPE-lifting only also grew with increased intensity (p < 0.05). In many cases, the mean RPE, session RPE, and session RPE- lifting only measurements were different at given exercise intensities (p < 0.05). The session RPE appears to be a viable method for quantitating the intensity of resistance training, generally comparable to aerobic training. However, the session RPE may meaningfully underestimate the average intensity rated immediately after each set.     

Relationships between Training Load,Salivary Cortisol Responses and Performance during Season Training in Middle and Long Distance Runners

Purpose

Monitoring training from a multifactorial point of view is of great importance in elite endurance athletes. This study aims to analyze the relationships between indicators of training load, hormonal status and neuromuscular performance, and to compare these values with competition performance, in elite middle and long-distance runners.

Method

Fifteen elite middle and long-distance runners (12 men, 3 women; age = 26.3±5.1 yrs) were measured for training volume, training zone and session rate of perceived exertion (RPE) (daily), countermovement jump (CMJ) and salivary free cortisol (weekly) for 39 weeks (i.e., the whole season). Competition performance was also observed throughout the study, registering the season best and worst competitions.

Results

Season average salivary free cortisol concentrations correlate significantly with CMJ (r = −0.777) and RPE (r = 0.551). Also, weekly averages of CMJ significantly correlates with RPE (r = −0.426), distance run (r = −0.593, p<0.001) and training zone (r = 0.437, p<0.05). Finally, it was found that the CMJ (+8.5%, g = 0.65) and the RPE (−17.6%, g = 0.94) measured the week before the best competition performance of the season were significantly different compared with the measurement conducted the week before the season’s worst competition performance.

Conclusions

Monitoring weekly measurements of CMJ and RPE could be recommended to control training process of such athletes in a non-invasive, field-based, systematic way.     

Testosterone, cortisol, and mood in a sports team competition

In humans, hormonal responses to winning/losing and their relationships to mood and status change have mostly been examined in individual athletic competitions. In this study, the salivary testosterone (T) and cortisol (C) and mood responses to a real match between two professional basketball teams were investigated. Data about individuals' contributions to outcome, performance appraisal, and attribution of outcome to internal/external factors were also collected. Results did not show statistically significant different T and C responses depending on the outcome. Negative mood was significantly enhanced, especially in the losers, while winners showed a better appraisal of team performance and a more internal attribution. T response did not show a significant relationship with mood changes, but it correlated positively with the "score/time playing" ratio, an indicator of individual participation in the outcome. Furthermore, T response correlated negatively with external attribution in winners and positively in losers. These results indicate that in a real, highly competitive situation, T changes are not directly a response to the outcome, but rather to the contribution the individual makes to it and to the causes he attributes.     

Effect of exercise at three exercise intensities on salivary cortisol

Changes in cortisol concentration in response to exercise at 3 different intensities were quantified. Ten apparently healthy, recreationally active males participated. On 4 separate occasions, subjects were assigned a random order of 1-hour cycle ergometer bouts of exercise at 44.5 +/- 5.5%, 62.3 +/- 3.8%, and 76.0 +/- 6.0% (mean +/- SD) of VO2peak and a resting control session. Saliva samples were collected before exercise at 10, 20, 40, and 59 minutes of exercise and at 20 minutes of recovery. Differences in cortisol concentration were assessed via multivariate analysis of variance (alpha = 0.05) Tukey post hoc analysis when indicated. During the highest-intensity exercise session, cortisol was significantly higher at 59 minutes of exercise (p = 0.004) and at 20 minutes of recovery (p = 0.016) than at those same time points during the resting control session. No significant differences in cortisol concentration were noted among resting, low-, and moderate-intensity exercise. Exercise <40 minutes in duration elicited no significant differences at any intensity. These data indicate that only exercise of high intensity and long duration results in significant elevations of salivary cortisol.     

Biochemical and endocrine responses to impact and collision during elite Rugby League match play

The purpose of this study was to investigate the relationship between the prematch and short-term postmatch biochemical and endocrine responses to the intensity, number, and distribution of impacts associated with collisions during elite Rugby League match play. Seventeen elite male Rugby League players each provided blood and saliva samples 24 hours prematch, 30 minutes prematch, 30 minutes postmatch, and then at 24-hour intervals for a period of 5 days postmatch to determine plasma creatine kinase concentration ([CK]) and salivary cortisol concentration ([sCort]). The intensity, number, and distribution of impact forces experienced by players during match play were recorded using portable global positioning systems (GPSs). The change in the dependent variables at each sample collection time was compared to 24 hours prematch and 30-minute prematch measures. The [CK] and [sCort] increased significantly (p < 0.05) during match play. Significant correlations (p < 0.05) were observed between the number of hit-ups and peak [CK] 24 hours postmatch, 48 hours postmatch, and 72 hours postmatch (p < 0.05). The number of impacts recorded in zone 5 (8.1-10.0G) and zone 6 (>10.1G) during match play was significantly correlated (p < 0.05) to [CK] 30 minutes postmatch, 24 hours post, 48 hours post, and 72 hours postmatch. The GPS was able to provide data on the intensity, number, and distribution of impacts resulting from collisions during match play. Elite Rugby League match play resulted in significant skeletal muscle damage and was highly dependent on the number of heavy collisions >8.1G. [CK] remained elevated 120 hours postmatch identifying that at least 5 days modified activity is required to achieve full recovery after elite Rugby League match play.     

Comparison of heart rate and session rating of perceived exertion methods of defining exercise load in cyclists

The aim of this study was to analyze the competition load using the session rating of perceived exertion (RPE) during different professional cycling races and to assess its validity using the competition load based on heart rate (HR). During 2 consecutive seasons, 12 professional cyclists (mean ± SEM: age 25 ± 1 years, height 175 ± 3 cm, body mass 65.9 ± 2.0 kg, and V(O2)max 78.5 ± 1.7 ml · kg(-1) · min(-1)) competed in 5-, 7-, and 21-day cycling races. The HR response and session RPE were measured during the races to calculate the competition load based on the training impulse of the HR (TRIMP(HR)) and RPE data (TRIMP(RPE)). The highest (p < 0.05) TRIMP(RPE) was observed in 21-day races. However, the higher (p < 0.05) TRIMP(HR) was found in 5- and 7-day races. When TRIMP(HR) and TRIMP(RPE) were normalized by competing distance, neither TRIMP(HR) · km(-1) nor TRIMP(RPE) · km(-1) was significantly different between the analyzed cycling races. We found significant (p < 0.001) correlations between TRIMP(HR) and TRIMP(RPE) (r = 0.75) and between TRIMP(HR) · km(-1) and TRIMP(RPE) · km(-1) (r = 0.90). In conclusion, this study showed that the session RPE can be used to quantify the competition load during professional cycling races. This method can be a useful and noninvasive tool for coaches to monitor and control the training load in cyclists.     

Stress-Induced Cortisol Response and Fat Distribution in Women

Recent studies have shown an association between uncontrollable stress and abdominal fat distribution. It has been suggested that changes in cortisol secretion might represent one possible mechanism for this relationship. This study investigated whether body fat distribution, determined by waist-to-hip ratio (WHR), is related to salivary cortisol levels in response to laboratory stressors. Subjects were 41 overweight women with a Low or a High WHR. Multiple measures of cortisol and mood were obtained during a session of stressful tasks (eg., timed arithmetic) and during a time-matched, control rest session. Also, background life stress and psychological trait variables were assessed. Compared to Low WHR subjects, High WHR subjects secreted significantly more cortisol during the stressful session after 60 minutes of stress, and considering the total area under the curve of secretion. This difference was not seen on the rest day. In terms of background and psychological measures, High WHR subjects were characterized by poorer coping skills and differences in mood reactivity. Specifically, although all subjects became more angry in response to the stressful session, High WHR subjects showed smaller increases in anger. This could indicate that they are more likely to evidence a helpless reaction to uncontrollable stress. These findings support the hypothesis that cortisol secretion might represent a mechanism for the observed association between stress and abdominal fat distribution. Furthermore, differences in coping and appraisal may suggest that a particular psychological pattern might influence the reactivity of the adrenal-cortical system to stress, and subsequent fat distribution.     

Exploring Shamanic Journeying: Repetitive Drumming with Shamanic Instructions Induces Specific Subjective Experiences but No Larger Cortisol Decrease than Instrumental Meditation Music

Exposure to repetitive drumming combined with instructions for shamanic journeying has been associated with physiological and therapeutic effects, such as an increase in salivary immunoglobulin A. In order to assess whether the combination of repetitive drumming and shamanic instructions is specifically associated with these effects, we compared the effect of listening to either repetitive drumming or instrumental meditation music for 15 minutes on salivary cortisol concentration and on self-reported physiological and psychological states. For each musical style, two groups of participants were exposed to two conditions: instructions for shamanic journeying or relaxation instructions. A total of 39 participants (24 females) inexperienced in shamanic journeying completed the experiment. Salivary cortisol concentrations were measured before and after exposure to music. In addition, participants filled out a mood questionnaire before and after the experiment and completed a post experiment questionnaire on their experiences. A significant decrease in the concentration in salivary cortisol was observed across all musical styles and instructions, indicating that exposure to 15 minutes of either repetitive drumming or instrumental meditation music, while lying down, was sufficient to induce a decrease in cortisol levels. However, no differences were observed across conditions. Significant differences in reported emotional states and subjective experiences were observed between the groups. Notably, participants exposed to repetitive drumming combined with shamanic instructions reported experiencing heaviness, decreased heart rate, and dreamlike experiences significantly more often than participants exposed to repetitive drumming combined with relaxation instructions. Our findings suggest that the subjective effects specifically attributed to repetitive drumming and shamanic journeying may not be reflected in differential endocrine responses.     

The effects of mouthpiece use on cortisol levels during an intense bout of resistance exercise

Research has suggested mouthpiece use during exercise results in an increase in muscle strength and endurance. However, the research is difficult to replicate, and the methodology suggested measures that were too subjective to determine a mouthpiece effect. Thus, the purpose of this study was to use an objective measure to determine a possible physiological mechanism occurring during and after exercise with mouthpiece use. A within-subjects design was used in which 28 division I football players, aged 18-22 years, performed 2 identical bouts of a 1-hour intense resistance exercise, with each subject being randomly assigned the use of a custom-fit mouthpiece either during the first or second session. During both exercise sessions, saliva was analyzed for cortisol at the following time points: pre-exercise, 25, 45, and 60 minutes of exercise, and 10 minutes postexercise. The results revealed a significant difference in cortisol levels with the use of a mouthpiece vs. no mouthpiece (p = 0.019) at 10 minutes postexercise. Additionally, although the expected increase in cortisol levels from pre to 10 minutes postexercise was present in the no-mouthpiece group (p = 0.01), no such increase was observed in the mouthpiece group. These observations are most likely because of the decrease in cortisol from post to 10 minutes post (p = 0.04) in the mouthpiece group. These data demonstrate that although cortisol continued to increase in the no-mouthpiece session, there was a significant decrease in cortisol in the no-mouthpiece condition 10 minutes postexercise.     

Resting salivary levels of IgA and cortisol are significantly affected during intensive resistance training periods in elite male weightlifters

The aim of this study was to investigate the cumulative effects of intensive resistance training on salivary immunoglobulin A (SIgA) and cortisol responses in elite male weightlifters. Eleven elite male Taiwanese weightlifters were trained through 3 training stages before a national weightlifting competition, and this was followed by a 2-week recovery stage. Resting saliva samples were collected once in each of the 4 stages. Salivary concentrations of total protein (TP), SIgA, lactoferrin, and cortisol were measured. The results showed that (a) salivary TP concentrations were not significantly affected; (b) resting levels of SIgA, the ratio of SIgA to TP (SIgA/TP), cortisol, and the ratio of cortisol to TP (cortisol/TP) were significantly higher in the training stages than in the recovery stage; (c) a positive correlation was revealed between the ratios of SIgA/TP and cortisol/TP; and (d) the resting salivary lactoferrin concentrations and the ratio of lactoferrin to TP (lactoferrin/TP) were significantly lower in stage 1 than in the recovery stage. The findings in this study suggest that prolonged, intensive resistance training exerts cumulative effects on SIgA and cortisol responses in elite weightlifters.     

Effects of delayed onset muscle soreness on selected physiological responses to submaximal running

This study examined the effects of delayed-onset muscle soreness (DOMS) on selected physiological responses to submaximal exercise. Seven male and four female subjects (Ss) aged 21-37 years completed two submaximal running sessions at an individualized pace corresponding to a blood lactate concentration (bLa) of approximately 2.5 mmol x L(-1). Following the first session (T1), Ss performed a series of lower extremity resistance exercises designed to induce DOMS. Subjects were then retested (T2) 24-30 hours later, during which time all Ss experienced DOMS. Oxygen uptake, heart rate (HR), respiratory exchange ratio, rating of perceived exertion (RPE), and bLa were measured every 6 minutes. Significant trial effects (p < 0.05) were observed for HR and RPE. HR was significantly higher during T1 at minutes 6 and 12 (p < 0.05), and RPE values were significantly higher at T2 during all recording periods (p < 0.05). Results from this study suggest that DOMS does not affect submaximal oxygen uptake. However, DOMS does appear to affect one's perception of effort.     

MONITORING TRAINING LOADS,STRESS, IMMUNE-ENDOCRINE RESPONSES AND PERFORMANCE IN TENNIS PLAYERS

The study aim was to investigate the effect of a periodised pre-season training plan on internal training load and subsequent stress tolerance, immune-endocrine responses and physical performance in tennis players. Well-trained young tennis players (n = 10) were monitored across the pre-season period, which was divided into 4 weeks of progressive overloading training and a 1-week tapering period. Weekly measures of internal training load, training monotony and stress tolerance (sources and symptoms of stress) were taken, along with salivary testosterone, cortisol and immunoglobulin A. One repetition maximum strength, running endurance, jump height and agility were assessed before and after training. The periodised training plan led to significant weekly changes in training loads (i.e. increasing in weeks 3 and 4, decreasing in week 5) and post-training improvements in strength, endurance and agility (P < 0.05). Cortisol concentration and the symptoms of stress also increased in weeks 3 and/or 4, before returning to baseline in week 5 (P < 0.05). Conversely, the testosterone to cortisol ratio decreased in weeks 3 and 4, before returning to baseline in week 5 (P < 0.05). In conclusion, the training plan evoked adaptive changes in stress tolerance and hormonal responses, which may have mediated the improvements in physical performance.     

Effect of unilateral and bilateral resistance exercise on maximal voluntary strength,total volume of load lifted,and perceptual and metabolic responses

The present study investigated the effect of unilateral and bilateral resistance exercise (RE) on maximal voluntary strength, total volume of load lifted (TVLL), rating of perceived exertion (RPE) and blood lactate concentration of resistance-trained males. Twelve healthy men were assessed for the leg extension one-repetition maximum (1RM) strength using bilateral and unilateral contractions. Following this assessment, an RE session (3 sets of repetitions to failure) was conducted with bilateral and unilateral (both limbs) contractions using a load of 50% 1RM. The TVLL was calculated by the product of the number of repetitions and the load lifted per repetition. RPE and blood lactate were measured before, during and after each set. Session RPE was measured 30 minutes after RE sessions. There was a significant difference in the bilateral (120.0±11.9) and unilateral (135.0±20.2 kg) 1RM strength (p < 0.05). The TVLL was similar between both RE sessions. Although the repetitions decreased with each successive set, the total number of repetitions completed in the bilateral protocol (48) was superior to the unilateral (40) protocol (p < 0.05). In both bouts, RPE increased with each subsequent set whilst blood lactate increased after set 1 and thereafter remained stable (p < 0.05). The RPE and lactate responses were not significantly different between both sessions. In conclusion, a bilateral deficit in leg extension strength was confirmed, but the TVLL was similar between both RE sessions when exercising to voluntary fatigue. This outcome could be attributed to the number of repetitions completed in the unilateral RE bout. The equal TVLL would also explain the similar perceptual and metabolic responses across each RE session.