Genetic markers in the Hindu and Muslim Gujjars of Northwestern India

A comparative study of serogenetic markers was carried out among the Hindu and Muslim Gujjars from Northwestern India. From each isolate of Gujjars, 200 adult couples were examined for the A1A2BO and Rhesus blood groups, ABH secretion, the serum proteins haptoglobins, transferrins, and albumins, and 200 male subjects were examined for glucose-6-phosphate dehydrogenase enzyme deficiency. The study showed that the Muslim Gujjars differ significantly from their counterpart, the Hindu Gujjars. The differentiation that has occurred among the Muslim Gujjars may be attributed to their geographical dispersal in diverse habitats, the inflow of genes from Islamic invaders as well as non-Islamic surrounding populations, the inbreeding effect, and the comparative breeding isolation. The genetic affinities of the Hindu Gujjars with the Jats and Rajputs provide strong evidence for their common ethnic origin and probably their recent fissioning owing to biosocial practices and occupational patterns. The computed genetic distance matrix shows diversity of Ahirs from all the concerned population groups.     

Dermatoglyphic studies among the two breeding isolates of Gujjars of northwestern India

Dermatoglyphic studies among two breeding isolates of Gujjars (200 individuals from each population) from northwestern India have been carried out. The distribution of phenotypic frequencies of dermatoglyphic features among the Hindu and Muslim Gujjars provides strong evidence that these populations have become distinct in the course of their history. This could have occurred due to the inflow of genes from Muslim invaders and surrounding populations or from the effects of inbreeding and biosocial and geographical isolation of the Muslim Gujjars from their counterpart, the Hindu Gujjars. However, the frequency distribution of dermatoglyphics of the Hindu Gujjars resembles those of the Rajputs, Jats, and Ahirs, suggesting an infrequent inflow of genes from neighboring populations and probably their recent isolation. Sexual dimorphism for dermatoglyphics has also been observed in both Hindu and Muslim Gujjar populations.     

Morphological and regional variations in body dimensions of the Gujjars of different localities in north-western India

Physical features and somatometric characters of the wide spread Gujjar population in North-Western India are fascinating. It is all the more interesting to study their morphological and regional variations in the body dimensions. In this paper, anthropometric characters of 200 adult subjects each belonging to Hindu Gujjars in the Ropar District of Punjab and Muslim Gujjars in the Chamba District of Himachal Pradesh in the North-Western part of India were compared. They differ significantly from each other for many physiognomic measurements, suggesting the biological diversity between the two population groups. Further, the comparison of anthropometric measurements between the different localities of the Gujjars showed morphological variations and regional diversity of the isolates in North-Western India. These findings may be attributed to the founder effect, genetic drift, and breeding and geographical isolation of the populations under study and not to secular trends. The findings have also been compared and discussed with the available results of other local populations in North-Western India.     

Polymorphism of palmar C- and D-line terminations among the Sikligars of Chandigarh

Modal types of palmar C- and D-line terminations of 60 couples of Sikligars from Chandigarh have been evaluated and compared with the populations from Northwestern India. The distribution of palmar C- and D-line terminations among the Sikligars resembles those of the Rajputs and Hindu Gujjars, suggesting a common population origin, an infrequent inflow of genes from the surrounding populations, and their biosocial isolation. Bilateral distribution asymmetry and sexual dimorphism were also observed.     

A study of intragroup biological change induced by social group fission in Macaca mulatta using discrete cranial traits

Eight discrete cranial traits are used as biological indicators to investigate the effect of social group fission on intragroup genetic change leading to intergroup differentiation in Macaca mulatta. The timing of discrete cranial trait frequency change and group fission coincide, indicating a possible causal relationship between fission and genetic change. A significant change in the male mating population during and after fission is proposed as the mechanism causing intragroup genetic change, along with the effects of fluctuations in segregation ratios.     

A chromosome‐scale reference genome and genome‐wide genetic variations elucidate adaptation in yak

Yak is an important livestock animal for the people indigenous to the harsh, oxygen‐limited Qinghai‐Tibetan Plateau and Hindu Kush ranges of the Himalayas. The yak genome was sequenced in 2012, but its assembly was fragmented because of the inherent limitations of the Illumina sequencing technology used to analyse it. An accurate and complete reference genome is essential for the study of genetic variations in this species. Long‐read sequences are more complete than their short‐read counterparts and have been successfully applied towards high‐quality genome assembly for various species. In this study, we present a high‐quality chromosome‐scale yak genome assembly (BosGru_PB_v1.0) constructed with long‐read sequencing and chromatin interaction technologies. Compared to an existing yak genome assembly (BosGru_v2.0), BosGru_PB_v1.0 shows substantially improved chromosome sequence continuity, reduced repetitive structure ambiguity, and gene model completeness. To characterize genetic variation in yak, we generated de novo genome assemblies based on Illumina short reads for seven recognized domestic yak breeds in Tibet and Sichuan and one wild yak from Hoh Xil. We compared these eight assemblies to the BosGru_PB_v1.0 genome, obtained a comprehensive map of yak genetic diversity at the whole‐genome level, and identified several protein‐coding genes absent from the BosGru_PB_v1.0 assembly. Despite the genetic bottleneck experienced by wild yak, their diversity was nonetheless higher than that of domestic yak. Here, we identified breed‐specific sequences and genes by whole‐genome alignment, which may facilitate yak breed identification.     

Genetic analysis and estimation of genetic diversity in east-European breeds of swift hounds (Canis familiaris L.) based on the data of genomic studies using RAPD markers

The method of polymerase chain reaction with a set of arbitrary primers (RAPD-PCR) was used to describe genetic variation and to estimate genetic diversity in East-European swift hounds, Russian Psovyi and Hortyi Borzois. For comparison, swift hounds of two West-European breeds (Whippet and Greyhound) and single dogs of other breed groups (shepherd, terriers, mastiffs, and bird dogs) were examined. For all dog groups, their closest related species, the wolf Canis lupus, was used as an outgroup. Variation of RAPD markers was studied at several hierarchic levels: intra- and interfamily (for individual families of Russian Psovyi and Hortyi Borzois), intra- and interbreed (for ten dog breeds), and interspecific (C. familiaris-C. lupus). In total, 57 dogs and 4 wolfs were studied. Using RAPD-PCR with three primers, 93 DNA fragments with a length of 150-1500 bp were detected in several Borzoi families with known filiation. These fragments were found to be inherited as dominant markers and to be applicable for estimation of genetic differences between parents and their offspring and for comparison of individuals and families with different level of inbreeding. A high level of intra- and interbreed variation was found in Russian Psovyi and Hortyi Borzois. In these dog groups, genetic similarity indices varied in a range of 72.2 to 93.4% (parents-offspring) and 68.0 to 94.5 (sibs). Based on the patterns of RAPD markers obtained using six primers, a dendrogram of genetic similarity between the wolf and different dog breeds was constructed, and indices of intragroup diversity were calculated. All studied breeds were found to fall into two clusters, swift hounds (Borzoi-like dogs) and other dogs. Russian Borzois represent a very heterogeneous group, in which the Russian Psovyi Borzoi is closer to Greyhound than the Russian Hortyi Borzoi. All studied wolfs constituted a separate cluster. Significant differences were found between the wolf and dogs by the number of RAPD markers (92.8 and 86.1, respectively) and by the indices of genetic diversity (54.3 and 64.8%, respectively). The reasons for the high intraspecific variation of dogs (including Russian Borzois) and the prospects of using the studied group of markers for genetic analysis and differentiation in C. familiaris are discussed.     

Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome: evaluation of the correlations between individual traits as an approach to the study of heterogeneity

A computer analysis was used to study heterogeneity of the Smith-Lemli-Opitz syndrome (SLOS) with or without certain anomalies and to determine intrafamilial phenotypical variability. The analysis of 83 SLOS cases showed significant differences in average values of intragroup similarity, estimated for the cases with cleft palate and without it and those with or without polydactyly. The degree of intragroup similarity in familial cases appeared to be twice as high as in sporadic ones. These data confirm the hypothesis on genetic heterogeneity of SLOS with some allelic forms.     

Genetic Analysis and Estimation of Genetic Diversity in East-European Breeds of Windhounds (Canis familiaris L.) Based on the Data of Genomic Studies Using RAPD Markers

The method of polymerase chain reaction with a set of arbitrary primers (RAPD–PCR) was used to describe genetic variation and to estimate genetic diversity in East-European windhounds, Russian Borzoi and Russian Chortai. For comparison, windhounds of two West-European breeds (Whippet and Greyhound) and single dogs of other breed types (shepherd, terriers, mastiffs, and bird dogs) were examined. For all dog groups, their closest related species, the wolf Canis lupus, was used as an outgroup. Variation of RAPD markers was studied at several hierarchic levels: intra- and interfamily (for individual families of Russian Psovyi and Chortai windhounds), intra- and interbreed (for ten dog breeds), and interspecific (C. familiaris–C. lupus). In total, 57 dogs and 4 wolves were studied. Using RAPD–PCR with three primers, 93 DNA fragments with a length of 150–1500 bp were detected in several Windhound families with known filiation. These fragments were found to be inherited as dominant markers and to be applicable for estimation of genetic differences between parents and their offspring and for comparison of individuals and families with different level of inbreeding. A high level of intra- and interbreed diversity was found in Russian Borzoi and Russian Chortai. In these dogs, genetic similarity indices varied in a range of 72.2 to 93.4% (parents–offspring) and 68.0 to 94.5 (sibs). Based on the patterns of RAPD markers obtained using six primers, a dendrogram of genetic similarity between the wolf and different dog breeds was constructed, and indices of intragroup diversity were calculated. All studied breeds grouped into two clusters, windhounds (Borzoi-like dogs) and other dog breeds. Russian windhounds represent a very heterogeneous group, in which the Russian Borzoi is closer to Greyhound than the Russian Chortai. All studied wolves constituted a separate cluster. Significant differences were found between the wolf and dogs by the number of RAPD markers (92.8 and 86.1, respectively) and by the indices of genetic diversity (54.3 and 64.8%, respectively). The reason for the high intraspecific variation of dogs (including Russian windhounds) and the prospects of using the studied group of markers for genetic analysis and differentiation in C. familiaris are discussed.     

Gene diversity in some Muslim populations of North India

North Indian Muslim populations have historical, linguistic, and socioreligious significance to the Indian subcontinent. Although sociocultural and political dimensions of their demography are well documented, no detailed genetic structure of the populations is available. We have undertaken a survey of the gene frequencies of the ABO, Rh, PTC taste ability, sickling, and G6PD systems for different endogamous groups: Sheikh, Syed, Pathan, Ansari, Saifi, and Hindu Bania. All the groups at most loci showed statistically nonsignificant differences, except for ABO and PTC traits, for which interpopulational differences were seen. Heterozygosity ranged from 0.048 to 0.617 among the Sheikh, 0.149 to 0.599 among the Pathan, 0.105 to 0.585 among the Ansari, 0.25 to 0.869 among the Syed, 0.107 to 0.565 among the Saifi, and 0.100 to 0.492 among the Hindu Bania. The average D(ST) and G(ST) values for the five marker loci were 0.0625 +/- 0.098 and 0.1072 +/- 0.041, respectively. A dendrogram was constructed using the UPGMA clustering method. Our results revealed that the Pathan and the Sheikh form one cluster, the Syed and the Hindu Bania form another cluster, and the two clusters join together (the so-called higher caste); also, the Saifi and the Ansari form a separate cluster (lower caste). The results of the genetic distance analysis are useful for understanding the pattern of genetic relationships between different endogamous groups of Muslims.     

白腹管鼻蝠两个冬眠群不同个体的随机扩增多态DNA分析

用随机扩增多态ＤＮＡ方法研究了白腹管鼻蝠冬眠群群内与群间个体之间的亲缘关系。结果显示：所研究的两个蝙蝠群内个体的遗传相似性平均为０．８６和０．８９,两群之间的遗传相似性平均为０．８４,群内与群间个体之间在遗传相似性方面有一定差别（Ｐ〈０．０５）。因此认为：在同一个洞中冬眠的白腹管鼻蝠可能亲缘关系很近,冬眠群的构成在亲缘关系方面存在着一定关系,即亲缘关系有可能影响冬眠群构成。     

HLA antigens in three populations of India

In blood samples from a Hindu population of Uttar Pradesh (North India) and from two Muslim groups, one from Andhra Pradesh (South India) and the other from Gujurat (West India), frequencies of 38 HLA-A, -B and -C antigens were investigated. Eight antigens - A23, A25, A29, A32, Bw45, B21, Bw22 and Bw53 - were absent in the Hindu population, four different antigens - A29, Bw52, B14 and Bw42 - were absent in Hyderabad Muslims, two antigens - A31 and Bw45 - were lacking in Surat Muslims. The three populations showed considerable genetic heterogeneity. The genetic difference between the two Muslim groups was small, but the Hindu population showed pronounced differences from each of the Muslim groups.     

Landscape genetics of Persian walnut (Juglans regia L.) across its Asian range

Persian walnut (Juglans regia L) is an economically important species cultivated worldwide for its wood and nuts. Despite the increasing interest in the development of conservation strategies for walnut germplasm, an accurate and full-scale overview of wild genetic resources of J. regia has not been conducted because natural populations are located in regions of Asia historically difficult to access. In this study, we estimated the genetic diversity and spatial genetic structure of 39 autochthonous Persian walnut populations sampled across its Asian range using 14 neutral microsatellite markers. A landscape genetic overlay approach was applied to detect the areas of current reservoirs of walnut genetic diversity in the Asian range and to evaluate the role of landscape in shaping walnut genetic diversity since the Last Glacial Maximum. Although Persian walnut has been highly manipulated by humans over the last 2,000 years, we determined that patches of high genetic diversity still exist in the Caucasus and mountains of Central Asia where J. regia might have survived after Pleistocene glaciations. We detected a clear separation of Persian walnut into four main genetic clusters centered in (1) western Kyrgyzstan, (2) western and south–central Asia, (3) east–central Uzbekistan, and (4) Xinjiang and Shandong provinces (China). Overlay of maps showed a coincidence between groups of walnut populations and potential barriers to gene flow such as the Hindu Kush, Pamir, Tien Shan, and Himalaya mountains and the Karakum, Kyzyl Kum, and Taklamakan deserts. This study claimed the relevance of the preservation of walnut genetic resources in the Asian range.     

Y-chromosomal insights into the genetic impact of the caste system in India

The caste system has persisted in Indian Hindu society for around 3,500 years. Like the Y chromosome, caste is defined at birth, and males cannot change their caste. In order to investigate the genetic consequences of this system, we have analysed male-lineage variation in a sample of 227 Indian men of known caste, 141 from the Jaunpur district of Uttar Pradesh and 86 from the rest of India. We typed 131 Y-chromosomal binary markers and 16 microsatellites. We find striking evidence for male substructure: in particular, Brahmins and Kshatriyas (but not other castes) from Jaunpur each show low diversity and the predominance of a single distinct cluster of haplotypes. These findings confirm the genetic isolation and drift within the Jaunpur upper castes, which are likely to result from founder effects and social factors. In the other castes, there may be either larger effective population sizes, or less strict isolation, or both. Electronic supplementary material Supplementary material is available in the online version of this article at and is accessible for authorized users. Tatiana Zerjal and Arpita Pandya contributed equally to this work.     

The distribution of AB0 and LH blood groups in some north Indian populations

The distribution of AB0 and LH blood groups among five Punjabi populations from North India (Jat Sikh, Bania, Brahmin, Sikh Khatri and Hindu Khatri) is reported. Significant differences have been found in many cases regarding the distribution of AB0 and LH systems, especially between Sikh Khatris and Hindu Khatris, who are usually pooled for population genetic studies.     

Genomic diversity and affinities in population groups of North West India: An analysis of Alu insertion and a single nucleotide polymorphism

The North West region of India is extremely important to understand the peopling of India, as it acted as a corridor to the foreign invaders from Eurasia and Central Asia. A series of these invasions along with multiple migrations led to intermixture of variable populations, strongly contributing to genetic variations. The present investigation was designed to explore the genetic diversities and affinities among the five major ethnic groups from North West India; Brahmin, Jat Sikh, Bania, Rajput and Gujjar. A total of 327 individuals of the abovementioned ethnic groups were analyzed for 4 Alu insertion marker loci (ACE, PV92, APO and D1) and a Single Nucleotide Polymorphism (SNP) rs2234693 in the intronic region of the ESR1 gene. Statistical analysis was performed to interpret the genetic structure and diversity of the population groups. Genotypes for ACE, APO, ESR1 and PV92 loci were found to be in Hardy–Weinberg equilibrium in all the ethnic groups, while significant departures were observed at the D1 locus in every investigated population after Bonferroni's correction. The average heterozygosity for all the loci in these ethnic groups was fairly substantial ranging from 0.3927 ± 0.1877 to 0.4333 ± 0.1416. Inbreeding coefficient indicated an overall 10% decrease in heterozygosity in these North West Indian populations. The gene differentiation among the populations was observed to be of the order of 0.013. Genetic distance estimates revealed that Gujjars were close to Banias and Jat Sikhs were close to Rajputs. Overall the study favored the recent division of the populations of North West India into largely endogamous groups. It was observed that the populations of North West India represent a more or less homogenous genetic entity, owing to their common ancestral history as well as geographical proximity.     

Consanguinity, caste and deaf-mutism in Punjab, 1921

The effects of religion, population sub-division and geography on the prevalence of deaf-mutism were investigated using information collected in the 1921 Census of Punjab. The total sample size was 9.36 million, and comprised data on thirteen Hindu castes, seventeen Muslim biraderis and two Sikh castes. A two-way analysis of variance comparing males in Hindu castes in which consanguineous marriage was prohibited, with males in Muslim biraderis which favoured first cousin marriage, indicated major differences with respect to the patterns of deaf-mutism within each religion. In the Muslim population 9.1% of the relative variation in the prevalence of deaf-mutism was inter-biraderi, 36.8% between geographical regions, and 48.8% an interaction between biraderi and region, whereas among Hindus 46.8% of the observed variation was inter-caste, 12.8% inter-region and 33.6% due to caste region interaction. From a wider disease perspective the results obtained with the Hindu community indicate the significant genetic differentiation associated with caste endogamy. As the overwhelming majority of Hindu marriages continue to be within-caste, it can be predicted that similar levels of inter-caste differences in disease frequency currently exist. By comparison, the lower level of inter-biraderi variation among Muslims is probably indicative of the dissolution of pre-existing caste boundaries and the resultant gene pool mixing that followed the large-scale conversion of Hindus to Islam during Muslim rule in North India from the 13th to the 19th centuries.     

Afghan Hindu Kush: Where Eurasian Sub-Continent Gene Flows Converge

Despite being located at the crossroads of Asia, genetics of the Afghanistan populations have been largely overlooked. It is currently inhabited by five major ethnic populations: Pashtun, Tajik, Hazara, Uzbek and Turkmen. Here we present autosomal from a subset of our samples, mitochondrial and Y- chromosome data from over 500 Afghan samples among these 5 ethnic groups. This Afghan data was supplemented with the same Y-chromosome analyses of samples from Iran, Kyrgyzstan, Mongolia and updated Pakistani samples (HGDP-CEPH). The data presented here was integrated into existing knowledge of pan-Eurasian genetic diversity. The pattern of genetic variation, revealed by structure-like and Principal Component analyses and Analysis of Molecular Variance indicates that the people of Afghanistan are made up of a mosaic of components representing various geographic regions of Eurasian ancestry. The absence of a major Central Asian-specific component indicates that the Hindu Kush, like the gene pool of Central Asian populations in general, is a confluence of gene flows rather than a source of distinctly autochthonous populations that have arisen in situ: a conclusion that is reinforced by the phylogeography of both haploid loci.     

Effects of species traits on the genetic diversity of high-mountain plants: a multi-species study across the Alps and the Carpathians

Aim  To test the influence of various species traits, elevation and phylogeographical history on the genetic diversity of high-mountain plants in the Alps and Carpathians.
Location  The regular sampling grid comprised the whole range of the European Alps and the Carpathians.
Methods  Twenty-two high-mountain plant species were exhaustively sampled and their genetic diversity was assessed with amplified fragment length polymorphisms (AFLPs). ANOVAs were used to check for relationships between species traits and species genetic diversity, and to test whether genetic diversity was influenced by altitude and phylogeographical history (i.e. Alps versus Carpathians).
Results  In both mountain systems, species dispersed and pollinated by wind showed higher genetic diversity than species with self or insect pollination, and with animal- or gravity-dispersed seeds. Only in the Alps did altitudinal range size affect species genetic diversity significantly: species with narrow altitudinal ranges in the highest vegetation belts had significantly higher genetic diversity than those expanding over wide altitudinal ranges. Genetic diversity was species specific and significantly higher in the Alps than in the Carpathians, but it was not influenced by elevation.
Main conclusions  Wind pollination and wind dispersal seem to foster high genetic diversity. However, species traits are often associated and their effects on genetic diversity cannot be clearly disentangled. As genetic diversity is species specific, comparisons across species need to be interpreted with care. Genetic diversity was generally lower in the Carpathians than in the Alps, due to higher topographical isolation of alpine habitats in the Carpathians and this mountain massif's divergent phylogeographical history. Elevation did not influence genetic diversity, challenging the long-held view of decreasing genetic diversity with increasing elevation in mountain plants.     

Religion,ethnicity and politics: Hindu and Muslim Indian immigrants in the United States

This article focuses on the political struggles between Hindu and Muslim Indian immigrant groups in the United States over the definition of "Indianness". Hindu Indian American organizations define India as a Hindu society and are strong supporters of the Hindu nationalist movement in India. Muslim Indian American organizations, on the other hand, view India as a multi-religious and multicultural society. They are striving to safeguard India's secularism and towards this end, have entered into coalitional relationships with lower caste groups. Both types of organizations are working to influence American and Indian politics in line with their respective interests, leading to an exacerbation of the conflict between the two immigrant groups. This article examines the reasons for this development and its implications, both for the development of an Indian American community in the United States and for religion and politics in India.