Suppression of cytokine-induced expression of adrenomedullin and endothelin-1 by dexamethasone in T98G human glioblastoma cells

There is accumulating evidence showing that glial cells and gliomas secrete some neuropeptides and vasoactive peptides, such as adrenomedullin and endothelin-1. We have previously shown that expression of these two peptides is induced by inflammatory cytokines in T98G human glioblastoma cells. Glucocorticoids are frequently used for the treatment of inflammatory diseases and glioblastomas. We therefore studied effects of dexamethasone on expression of adrenomedullin and endothelin-1 in T98G human glioblastoma cells. Dexamethasone dose-dependently increased adrenomedullin mRNA levels and immunoreactive-adrenomedullin levels in the medium in T98G cells, whereas it decreased immunoreactive-endothelin levels in the medium. A combination of three cytokines, interferon-gamma (100 U/ml), tumor necrosis factor-alpha (20 ng/ml) and interleukin-1beta (10 ng/ml) induced expression of adrenomedullin and endothelin-1 in T98G cells. Dexamethasone (10(-8) mol/l) suppressed increases in expression of both adrenomedullin and endothelin-1 induced by these three cytokines. Thus, dexamethasone alone increased adrenomedullin expression whereas it suppressed the cytokine-induced expression of adrenomedullin in T98G cells. These findings raised the possibility that effects of dexamethasone on brain inflammation and glioblastomas may be partly mediated or modulated by its effects on expression of adrenomedullin and endothelin-1.     

Nitric oxide synthase induction,cGMP elevation,and biopterin synthesis in vascular smooth muscle cells stimulated with interleukin-1beta in hypoxia

In cultured rat vascular smooth muscle cells (VSMC), inducible nitric oxide synthase (iNOS) expression evoked by interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) or tumor necrosis factor-alpha was greatly enhanced in hypoxia (2% O(2)), compared to in normoxia. In contrast, iNOS induction by interferon-gamma, lipopolysaccharide or their combination was barely influenced by hypoxia. These results indicate that iNOS induction is regulated by hypoxia in different manners, depending on the stimuli in VSMC. Nitric oxide (NO) production in response to stimulation with interferon-gamma plus lipopolysaccharide was significantly decreased in hypoxia, due to a decrease in the concentration of O(2) as a substrate. In contrast, the level of NO production in hypoxia was almost the same as that in normoxia when the cells were stimulated by IL-1beta. In addition, cGMP increased in response to IL-1beta in hypoxia to a level comparable to that in normoxia. Thus, it seems that the IL-1beta-induced expression of iNOS is up-regulated in hypoxia to compensate for a decrease in the enzyme activity due to the lower availability of O(2) as a substrate, and consequently a sufficient amount of NO is produced to elevate cGMP to an adequate level. In addition, the IL-1beta-induced synthesis of tetrahydrobiopterin, a cofactor for iNOS, was also greatly stimulated by hypoxia in VSMC.     

Suppression of Heme Oxygenase-1 mRNA Expression by Interferon-γ in Human Glioblastoma Cells

Heme oxygenase is a rate-limiting enzyme in heme catabolism that cleaves heme to form biliverdin, carbon monoxide, and iron. Heme oxygenase-1 is an inducible isozyme and is expressed in many types of cells and tissues. Large amounts of these heme degradation products may be noxious to the host, especially in the brain. We therefore searched for the factors that suppress the expression of heme oxygenase-1. Northern blot analysis showed that treatment with interferon-gamma and with interleukin-1beta for 24 h decreased the expression levels of heme oxygenase-1 mRNA to approximately 20 and approximately 50% of the control levels, respectively, in a human glioblastoma cell line, T98G. Treatment with a combination of these two cytokines additively decreased the expression levels of heme oxygenase-1 mRNA. Western blot analysis showed that the expression level of heme oxygenase-1 protein was also decreased by treatment with interferon-gamma, but not with interleukin-1beta. Moreover, pretreatment with interferon-gamma partially suppressed the induction of heme oxygenase-1 mRNA expression caused by either sodium nitroprusside, cadmium, or hemin. These findings raise the possibility that the expression of heme oxygenase-1 is down-regulated by interferon-gamma in the nervous system.     

Effects of adipokines on expression of adrenomedullin and endothelin-1 in cultured vascular endothelial cells

Obesity is a major risk factor for the development of hypertension. Adipokines may cause hypertension by acting both centrally and directly on the vascular vessels. We wished to clarify whether three adipokines, leptin, resistin and tumor necrosis factor-alpha, affect expression of adrenomedullin and endothelin-1 in vascular endothelial cells. Human umbilical vein endothelial cells were cultured for 24 h with leptin (1-10 nmol/l), resistin (1-10 nmol/l) or tumor necrosis factor-alpha (1-10 ng/ml). Expression of adrenomedullin and endothelin-1 was examined by radioimmunoassay and northern blot analysis. Immunoreactive-adrenomedullin in the medium and adrenomedullin mRNA expression levels were decreased by treatment of tumor necrosis factor-alpha time- and dose-dependently, whereas endothelin-1 secretion was not significantly changed by it. Leptin or resistin had no significant effects on expression of adrenomedullin or endothelin-1 in human umbilical vein endothelial cells. Under hypoxic conditions (1% O2), expression of both adrenomedullin and endothelin-1 was induced in these cells. Immunoreactive-adrenomedullin levels in the medium were decreased by treatment of tumor necrosis factor-alpha under hypoxia. Leptin or resistin had no significant effects on adrenomedullin or endothelin-1 expression also in hypoxia. These findings have raised the possibility that decreased expression of adrenomedullin by tumor necrosis factor-alpha may be related to the increased risk of hypertension and other cardiovascular diseases in obese subjects.     

低氧联合LPS刺激对星形胶质细胞中炎性因子和BNIP3表达的影响*

目的:探讨在低氧联合脂多糖(LPS)作用下,星形胶质细胞中B淋巴细胞瘤-2/腺病毒E1B 19-kD相互作用蛋白3(BNIP3)的表达和炎症反应变化。方法:将体外培养的原代星形胶质细胞和神经元进行下列分组:常氧组、LPS组、低氧组和LPS+低氧组(每组设置3个复孔)。LPS处理后,低氧组和LPS+低氧组放入低氧细胞孵箱,LPS组和常氧组放入正常的细胞孵箱。LPS浓度:100 ng/ml,氧气浓度为0.3%。处理时间为24 h。原代的星形胶质细胞进行上述的分组,时间点设为6 h、12 h和24 h。Western blot检测BNIP3的表达变化,RT-PCR和ELISA分别检测星形胶质细胞的肿瘤坏死因子-ɑ(TNF-ɑ)、白细胞介素-1β(IL-1β)和白细胞介素6(IL-6)mRNA水平变化和分泌情况。结果:与常氧组比较,低氧组炎症因子的表达没有变化,LPS组和LPS＋低氧组的炎症因子TNF-ɑ、IL-1β和IL-6 mRNA水平升高(P＜0.01);与LPS组比较,LPS＋低氧组炎症因子IL-1β和IL-6 mRNA水平进一步升高(P＜0.05,P＜0.01)。与常氧组比较,低氧组炎症因子的分泌水平没有变化,LPS组和LPS＋低氧组的炎症因子TNF-ɑ和IL-6 分泌水平升高(P＜0.01),IL-1β的水平没有变化;与LPS组比较,LPS＋低氧组炎症因子TNF-ɑ和IL-6分泌水平没有进一步升高。BNIP3在体外培养的神经元和星型胶质细胞中都有表达;在星形胶质细胞中,与常氧组比较,LPS组BNIP3的表达没有变化,低氧组和LPS+低氧组BNIP3的表达明显增加(P＜0.01);在神经元中,与常氧组比较,LPS组BNIP3的表达没有变化,低氧组和LPS+低氧组BNIP3的表达增加(P＜0.05,P＜0.01);与神经元的低氧组比较,星形胶质细胞的低氧组BNIP3的表达增加更明显(P＜0.01)。在星形胶质细胞中LPS联合低氧刺激6、12、24 h后BNIP3蛋白的表达,与常氧组相同时间点比较,LPS组BNIP3的表达没有变化,低氧组和LPS+低氧组BNIP3的表达增加(P＜0.05,P＜0.01);与低氧组相同时间点比较,6 h和12 h的LPS＋低氧组BNIP3的表达增加的更高(P＜0.01)。结论:低氧联合LPS刺激可以增强星形胶质细胞的炎症反应,LPS能增加低氧下星形胶质细胞中BNIP3的表达,提示BNIP3在星形胶质细胞的炎性反应中可能具有一定的调节作用。     

Amyloid beta and amylin fibrils induce increases in proinflammatory cytokine and chemokine production by THP-1 cells and murine microglia

Activated microglia surrounding amyloid beta-containing senile plaques synthesize interleukin-1, an inflammatory cytokine that has been postulated to contribute to Alzheimer's disease pathology. Studies have demonstrated that amyloid beta treatment causes increased cytokine release in microglia and related cell cultures. The present work evaluates the specificity of this cellular response by comparing the effects of amyloid beta to that of amylin, another amyloidotic peptide. Both lipopolysaccharide-treated THP-1 monocytes and mouse microglia showed significant increases in mature interleukin-1beta release 48 h following amyloid beta or human amylin treatment, whereas nonfibrillar rat amylin had no effect on interleukin-1beta production by THP-1 cells. Lipopolysaccharide-stimulated THP-1 cells treated with amyloid beta or amylin also showed increased release of the proinflammatory cytokines tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-6, as well as the chemokines interleukin-8 and macrophage inflammatory protein-1alpha and -1beta. THP-1 cells incubated with fibrillar amyloid beta or amylin in the absence of lipopolysaccharide also showed significant increases of both interleukin-1beta and tumor necrosis factor-alpha mRNA. Furthermore, treatment of THP-1 cells with amyloid fibrils resulted in an elevated expression of the immediate-early genes c-fos and junB. These studies provide further evidence that fibrillar amyloid peptides can induce signal transduction pathways that initiate an inflammatory response that is likely to contribute to Alzheimer's disease pathology.     

Tumor necrosis factor and interleukin-1 induce activin A gene expression in a human bone marrow stromal cell line.

Activin A, a homodimer of the beta A chain, regulates hematopoiesis. In a human bone marrow-derived stromal cell line, KM-102, phorbol myristate acetate, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and interleukin-1 beta induced great increases in beta A chain mRNA levels and production of activin A activities. The phorbol ester-induced beta A chain gene expression was inhibited by cycloheximide and down regulation of protein kinase C, whereas the cytokine-induced expression was little affected by these treatments. These results indicate that the inflammatory cytokines directly stimulate beta A chain gene expression via protein kinase C-independent pathways.     

Effect of endothelin antagonism on the production of cytokines in eosinophilic airway inflammation

Endothelin (ET)-1 has been launched as an important mediator in bronchial asthma, which is an eosinophilic airway inflammation. However, the interplay between ET-1 and other proinflammatory mediators during the development of airway inflammation has not been elucidated. We wanted to study 1) whether the production of ET-1 precedes the production of other proinflammatory mediators and 2) whether ET-1 stimulates the production of these mediators within the airways. These hypotheses were studied during the development of an eosinophilic airway inflammation in rats. The increase in ET-1 mRNA level in lung tissue preceded the increase in mRNA levels of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin (IL)-1beta, and IL-8. Treatment of the animals with the ET receptor antagonist bosentan resulted in a substantial decrease in the concentrations of tumor necrosis factor-alpha, IL-4, IL-1beta, interferon-gamma, and ET-1 in bronchoalveolar lavage fluid. In conclusion, the synthesis of ET-1 as measured by increased mRNA level precedes the synthesis of other proinflammatory cytokines of importance for the development of an eosinophilic airway inflammation, and ET antagonism inhibits the production of these mediators within the airways. Whether treatment with ET antagonists will prove beneficial for patients with eosinophilic airway inflammations like bronchial asthma is not yet known.     

Regulation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) by bone resorptive factors in osteoblastic cells

In addition to their stimulating function on osteoclastic bone resorption, bone resorptive factors may regulate proteinases and related factors in osteoblastic cells to degrade bone matrix proteins. This study investigated the regulation of matrix metalloproteinases (MMPs) and tissue inhibitors of metalloproteinases (TIMPs) by bone resorptive factors in the cultures of mouse osteoblastic MC3T3-E1 cells, mouse primary osteoblastic (POB) cells, and neonatal mouse calvariae. Expression of either MMP-2, -3, -9, -11, -13, and -14 or TIMP-1, -2, and -3 was detected in MC3T3-E1 cells and POB cells. When the bone resorptive factors parathyroid hormone, 1,25-dihydroxyvitamin D(3), prostaglandin E(2), interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta), and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha) were added to the cell cultures, MMP-13 mRNA levels were found predominantly to increase by all resorptive factors in the three cultures. mRNA levels of either MMP-3 and -9 or TIMP-1 and -3 were found to increase mainly by the cytokines IL-1beta and TNF-alpha. BB94, a nonselective MMP inhibitor, neutralized the (45)Ca release stimulated by these resorptive factors to an extent similar to that of calcitonin, strongly suggesting that bone resorptive factors function at least partly through MMP formation. We propose that MMP-13 mRNA expression in osteoblastic cells may play an important role in stimulating matrix degradation by both systemic and local resorptive factors, whereas either MMP-3 and -9 or TIMP-1 and -3 might modulate matrix degradation by local cytokines only.     

Differential regulation of phospholipase A2 by cytokines inhibiting bone formation and mineralization.

Treatment of fetal rat calvarial cells with interleukin-1 alpha, tumor necrosis factor-alpha, transforming growth factor-beta 1, or group II phospholipase A2 inhibits the number of bone nodules formed in long-term cultures. These same mediators also inhibit the mineralization of fully developed bone nodules in a time and dose-dependent fashion. The pro-inflammatory cytokines interleukin-1 alpha and tumor necrosis factor-alpha cause a dose-dependent induction of rat calvarial cell phospholipase A2-II mRNA levels, suggesting that their effects on bone formation may be mediated indirectly by activation of this enzyme. In contrast, transforming growth factor-beta 1, which has more potent effects on bone formation than interleukin-1 alpha or tumor necrosis factor-alpha, suppresses basal levels of phospholipase A2-II mRNA, indicating a different mechanism of action for this cytokine.     

Interleukin-1 alpha and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF alpha) inhibit growth and induce TNF messenger RNA in MCF-7 human breast cancer cells.

We studied the effects of interleukin-1 alpha (IL-1) and tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF), alone and in combination, on MCF-7 breast cancer cells to determine whether these cytokines alter cell growth, TNF gene expression, and TNF secretion. We found that IL-1 alone and TNF alone inhibited cell growth in a dose-dependent manner. Each cytokine arrested growth in the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle, with maximum growth inhibition at 1000 U/ml (P less than 0.05) and 100 U/ml (P less than 0.01), respectively. However, the combination of these two cytokines did not result in greater growth inhibition or a greater percentage of cells arrested in the G0/G1 phase of the cell cycle compared with each cytokine alone. We examined the effect of exogenous IL-1 and TNF on TNF gene expression by Northern blot analysis. In the absence of any cytokine, these cells do not express TNF mRNA. Exposure to IL-1 (1000 U/ml) induced TNF mRNA at 3 h; however, mRNA levels diminished thereafter to barely detectable levels by 24 h. Exposure to TNF (1000 U/ml) also induced TNF mRNA at 3 h, but in contrast to IL-1, the level of enhanced expression persisted at these levels through 72 h of exposure. Secretion of TNF by these cells is induced by exogenous TNF, but not by IL-1. IL-1 and TNF in combination do not produce greater inhibition of growth, greater amounts of TNF mRNA at 3 h, or greater secretion of TNF than that produced by TNF alone.(ABSTRACT TRUNCATED AT 250 WORDS)     

Cytokine-induced release of endothelin-1 from porcine renal epithelial cell line.

To elucidate the mechanism by which endothelin-1 (ET-1) is released from renal epithelial cells, we have investigated the effects of several compounds on release of ET-1-like immunoreactivity (LI) from LLCPK1 cell line. Thrombin, transforming growth factor-beta, cytokines (tumor necrotizing factor-alpha, interleukin-1 beta), and phorbol ester stimulated ET-1-LI release in a time- and dose-dependent manner. The cytokine-induced ET-1-LI release was not affected by indomethacin. Northern blot analysis using cDNA for porcine preproET-1 as a probe revealed a single major band corresponding to the size of ET-1 mRNA in LLCPK1. These data indicate that the preproET-1 gene is also expressed in renal epithelial cells and the release of ET-1 from renal cells is regulated by the similar mechanism to that from endothelial cells.     

Expression of mRNA for interleukin-1beta, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and macrophage migration inhibitory factor in HPA-axis tissues in Schistosoma mansoni-infected baboons (Papio cynocephalus)

Cytokines may regulate the function of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis during schistosomiasis. This possibility was investigated in baboons experimentally infected with Schistosoma mansoni. Serum levels of corticotrophin-releasing hormone, adrenocorticotrophin, cortisol and dehydroepiandrosterone were confirmed to be decreased in infected baboons as previously shown. To explore if this effect is associated with specific expression of cytokines with endocrine activity, and are also associated with the pathology of the disease, Northern blots for interleukin-1beta, interleukin-6, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and macrophage migration inhibitory factor in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis tissues were performed. Infection induced interleukin-1beta gene expression in the hypothalamus, while interleukin-6 and migration inhibitory factor mRNAs were induced only in the pituitary and adrenal glands. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha gene expression was induced in the hypothalamus and the pituitary gland. Histopathological analysis of the hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis tissues in infected and control baboons revealed no morphological differences between them. These results suggest that specific cytokines expressed in hypothalamic-pituitary-adrenal axis tissues could regulate hormone secretion during schistosomiasis.     

Production and Secretion of Adrenomedullin by Cultured Choroid Plexus Carcinoma Cells

Abstract: Adrenomedullin is a potent vasodilator peptide that was originally isolated from pheochromocytoma. The production and secretion of adrenomedullin by cultured choroid plexus carcinoma cells were studied by radioimmunoassay and northern blot hybridization. Choroid plexus carcinoma is a rare malignant tumor derived from the epithelium of the choroid plexus. Immunoreactive adrenomedullin was detected in the conditioned medium of choroid plexus carcinoma cells (40.8 ± 7.5 fmol/10⁵ cells/24 h; mean ± SEM, n = 5). Reverse-phase HPLC of the conditioned medium showed one major peak of the immunoreactive peptide eluting in the position of synthetic human adrenomedullin and two smaller peaks eluting earlier. Addition of interleukin-1β (10 ng/ml) alone or in combination with three cytokines, interferon-γ (100 U/ml), tumor necrosis factor-α (20 ng/ml), and interleukin-1β (10 ng/ml), caused significant increases in the immunoreactive adrenomedullin concentrations in the medium (∼175 and 293% of the control level, respectively). Northern blot analysis showed the expression of 1.6-kb adrenomedullin mRNA in the total RNA sample prepared from cultured choroid plexus carcinoma cells. Treatment with either interleukin-1β or the combination of three cytokines caused significant increases in levels of adrenomedullin mRNA in parallel with those in immunoreactive adrenomedullin concentrations in the conditioned medium. These findings raise a possibility that adrenomedullin is secreted from the choroid plexus and has physiological roles in the CNS via the CSF. In addition, adrenomedullin secreted from choroid plexus carcinoma may be related to the pathophysiology of the tumor.     

Estrogen reduces pro-inflammatory cytokines in rodent adipose tissue: studies in vivo and in vitro.

Obesity is associated with an increased risk of developing insulin resistance, Type 2 diabetes, and cardiovascular disease. Reports have suggested that adipose tissue-derived cytokines such as tumor necrosis factor-alpha, interleukin-6 and interleukin-8 could be involved in the development of these health complications. Since estrogen has been suggested to attenuate the development of atherosclerosis and cardiovascular disease, we investigated whether ovariectomy affected the production and release of these three adipose tissue-derived cytokines with and without estrogen replacement in vivo and in vitro. Female Wistar rats were submitted to either a) ovariectomy, b) ovariectomy and estrogen replacement, or c) sham operation. After five months, animals were sacrificed and parametrial adipose tissue was removed and incubated for up to 24 hours with either interleukin-1beta (IL-1beta) (5 micro g/l), dexamethasone (50 nM) or estrogen (50 nM). Ovariectomy significantly increased interleukin-6 gene expression (p < 0.05) as well as interleukin-8 protein levels (p < 0.05) and gene expression (p < 0.05) in the adipose tissue, and estrogen replacement significantly reversed this increase (p < 0.05). However, no direct effects of estrogen were found in in vitro adipose tissue incubations. Neither ovariectomy nor estrogen replacement had any effects on tumor necrosis factor-alpha protein levels or gene expression. In conclusion, estrogen-deficient rats were found to have increased production of interleukin-6 and interleukin-8, which could be attenuated by estrogen-replacement. Since estrogen is suggested to be anti-atherosclerotic, this effect might be caused by a reduction in cytokine production from the adipose tissue.     

The effect of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin (IL)-1 beta and IL-6 on chorioamnion secretion of prostaglandins (PG)F 2 alpha and E2 in pigs

The aim of the present study was to determine the effect of tumor necrosis factor-alpha (TNF-alpha), interleukin-1 beta (IL-1 beta) and interleukin-6 (IL-6) on prostaglandin (PG)F(2 alpha) and PGE(2) secretion as well as cyclooxygenase-2 (COX-2) protein expression in chorioamnion collected on days 25, 30 and 40 of pregnancy in pigs. Fetal membrane slices were incubated for 16 h with TNF-alpha, IL-1 beta, IL-6 (1 or 10 ng/ml of medium) or two combinations of the three cytokines (1 or 10 ng/ml of each cytokine per combination). We demonstrated the stimulatory effect of TNF-alpha, IL-1 beta and/or IL-6 on PGF(2 alpha) and PGE(2) secretion by the porcine fetal membranes. The medium content of these PGs depended on the cytokine type, treatment dose and day of pregnancy. Cytokine stimulation of PGE(2) was more pronounced than that of PGF(2 alpha). In addition, an increase in PGF(2 alpha) and/or PGE(2) secretion was usually associated with an augmentation of COX-2 protein expression. Our results support the notion concerning the possible role of cytokines in modulating production of PGs by fetal membranes during the first trimester of gestation.