A mutation in protein phosphatase 2A regulatory subunit A affects auxin transport in Arabidopsis.

The phytohormone auxin controls processes such as cell elongation, root hair development and root branching. Tropisms, growth curvatures triggered by gravity, light and touch, are also auxin-mediated responses. Auxin is synthesized in the shoot apex and transported through the stem, but the molecular mechanism of auxin transport is not well understood. Naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) and other inhibitors of auxin transport block tropic curvature responses and inhibit root and shoot elongation. We have isolated a novel Arabidopsis thaliana mutant designated roots curl in NPA (rcn1). Mutant seedlings exhibit altered responses to NPA in root curling and hypocotyl elongation. Auxin efflux in mutant seedlings displays increased sensitivity to NPA. The rcn1 mutation was transferred-DNA (T-DNA) tagged and sequences flanking the T-DNA insert were cloned. Analysis of the RCN1 cDNA reveals that the T-DNA insertion disrupts a gene for the regulatory A subunit of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A-A). The RCN1 gene rescues the rcn1 mutant phenotype and also complements the temperature-sensitive phenotype of the Saccharomyces cerevisiae PP2A-A mutation, tpd3-1. These data implicate protein phosphatase 2A in the regulation of auxin transport in Arabidopsis.     

OsPIN2, which encodes a member of the auxin efflux carrier proteins,is involved in root elongation growth and lateral root formation patterns via the regulation of auxin distribution in rice

Auxin flow is important for different root developmental processes such as root formation, emergence, elongation and gravitropism. However, the detailed information about the mechanisms regulating the auxin flow is less well understood in rice. We characterized the auxin transport‐related mutants, Ospin‐formed2‐1 (Ospin2‐1) and Ospin2‐2, which exhibited curly root phenotypes and altered lateral root formation patterns in rice. The OsPIN2 gene encodes a member of the auxin efflux carrier proteins that possibly regulates the basipetal auxin flow from the root tip toward the root elongation zone. According to DR5‐driven GUS expression, there is an asymmetric auxin distribution in the mutants that corresponded with the asymmetric cell elongation pattern in the mutant root tip. Auxin transport inhibitor, N‐1‐naphthylphthalamic acid and Ospin2‐1 Osiaa13 double mutant rescued the curly root phenotype indicating that this phenotype results from a defect in proper auxin distribution. The typical curly root phenotype was not observed when Ospin2‐1 was grown in distilled water as an alternative to tap water, although higher auxin levels were found at the root tip region of the mutant than that of the wild‐type. Therefore, the lateral root formation zone in the mutant was shifted basipetally compared with the wild‐type. These results reflect that an altered auxin flow in the root tip region is responsible for root elongation growth and lateral root formation patterns in rice.     

Genetic and Chemical Reductions in Protein Phosphatase Activity Alter Auxin Transport, Gravity Response, and Lateral Root Growth

Auxin transport is required for important growth and developmental processes in plants, including gravity response and lateral root growth. Several lines of evidence suggest that reversible protein phosphorylation regulates auxin transport. Arabidopsis rcn1 mutant seedlings exhibit reduced protein phosphatase 2A activity and defects in differential cell elongation. Here we report that reduced phosphatase activity alters auxin transport and dependent physiological processes in the seedling root. Root basipetal transport was increased in rcn1 or phosphatase inhibitor-treated seedlings but showed normal sensitivity to the auxin transport inhibitor naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA). Phosphatase inhibition reduced root gravity response and delayed the establishment of differential auxin-induced gene expression across a gravity-stimulated root tip. An NPA treatment that reduced basipetal transport in rcn1 and cantharidin-treated wild-type plants also restored a normal gravity response and asymmetric auxin-induced gene expression, indicating that increased basipetal auxin transport impedes gravitropism. Increased auxin transport in rcn1 or phosphatase inhibitor-treated seedlings did not require the AGR1/EIR1/PIN2/WAV6 or AUX1 gene products. In contrast to basipetal transport, root acropetal transport was normal in phosphatase-inhibited seedlings in the absence of NPA, although it showed reduced NPA sensitivity. Lateral root growth also exhibited reduced NPA sensitivity in rcn1 seedlings, consistent with acropetal transport controlling lateral root growth. These results support the role of protein phosphorylation in regulating auxin transport and suggest that the acropetal and basipetal auxin transport streams are differentially regulated.     

The Microtubule-Associated Protein END BINDING1b, Auxin, and Root Responses to Mechanical Cues

The ability of roots to penetrate through the soil and maneuver around rocks and other impenetrable objects requires a system for modulating output from mechanosensory response networks. The microtubule-associated protein END BINDING1b (EB1b) has a role in this process; it represses root responses to mechanical cues. In this study, a possible relationship between EB1b and auxin during root responses to mechanical cues was investigated. We found that eb1b-1-mutant roots are more sensitive than wild-type roots to chemicals that disrupt auxin transport, whereas the roots of mutants with defects in auxin transport are resistant to these treatments. Using seedlings that express the auxin-sensitive DR5rev::GFP construct, we also found that wild-type and eb1b-1 roots treated with the auxin transport inhibitor naphthylphthalamic acid exhibited dose-dependent reductions in basipetal auxin transport that were indistinguishable from each other. The responses of eb1b-1 roots to mechanical cues were also enhanced over wild type in the presence of p -chlorophenoxyisobutyric acid, a chemical thought to inhibit auxin signaling. Finally, roots of eb1b-1 and wild-type plants exhibited slight increases in loop formation in response to increasing levels of exogenously applied indole-3-acetic acid or 1-naphthalene acetic acid. Taken together, these results suggest that the repression of loop formation by EB1b and auxin transport/signaling occurs by different mechanisms.     

The Ethylene-insensitive sickle mutant of Medicago truncatula shows altered auxin transport regulation during nodulation

We studied the ethylene-insensitive, hypernodulating mutant, sickle (skl), to investigate the interaction of ethylene with auxin transport during root nodulation in Medicago truncatula. Grafting experiments demonstrated that hypernodulation in skl is root controlled. Long distance transport of auxin from shoot to root was reduced by rhizobia after 24 h in wild type but not in skl. Similarly, the ethylene precursor 1-amino cyclopropane-1-carboxylic acid inhibited auxin transport in wild type but not in skl. Auxin transport at the nodule initiation zone was significantly reduced by rhizobia after 4 h in both wild type and skl. After 24 h, auxin transport significantly increased at the nodule initiation zone in skl compared to wild type, accompanied by an increase in the expression of the MtPIN1 and MtPIN2 (pin formed) auxin efflux transporters. Response assays to different auxins did not show any phenotype that would suggest a defect of auxin uptake in skl. The auxin transport inhibitor N-1-naphthylphtalamic acid inhibited nodulation in wild type but not skl, even though N-1-naphthylphtalamic acid still inhibited auxin transport in skl. Our results suggest that ethylene signaling modulates auxin transport regulation at certain stages of nodule development, partially through PIN gene expression, and that an increase in auxin transport relative to the wild type is correlated with higher nodule numbers. We also discuss the regulation of auxin transport in skl in comparison to previously published data on the autoregulation mutant, super numerary nodules (van Noorden et al., 2006).     

ILR2, a novel gene regulating IAA conjugate sensitivity and metal transport in Arabidopsis thaliana

Plants can regulate levels of the auxin indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) by conjugation to amino acids or sugars, and subsequent hydrolysis of these conjugates to release active IAA. These less active auxin conjugates constitute the majority of IAA in plants. We isolated the Arabidopsis ilr2-1 mutant as a recessive IAA-leucine resistant mutant that retains wild-type sensitivity to free IAA. ilr2-1 is also defective in lateral root formation and primary root elongation. In addition, ilr2-1 is resistant to manganese- and cobalt-mediated inhibition of root elongation, and microsomal preparations from the ilr2-1 mutant exhibit enhanced ATP-dependent manganese transport. We used a map-based positional approach to clone the ILR2 gene, which encodes a novel protein with no predicted membrane-spanning domains that is polymorphic among Arabidopsis accessions. Our results demonstrate that ILR2 modulates a metal transporter, providing a novel link between auxin conjugate metabolism and metal homeostasis.     

PIS1, a negative regulator of the action of auxin transport inhibitors in Arabidopsis thaliana

In order to clarify the mechanism underlying the polar auxin transport system, the pis1 mutant in Arabidopsis thaliana that is hypersensitive to N -1-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA), an auxin transport inhibitor was isolated and characterized. Whereas the pis1 mutant is normally sensitive to phytohormones, auxins, cytokinin and ethylene precursor, this mutant is hypersensitive to NPA over the broad spectrum of its effects such as growth of seedlings, root elongation, root gravitropism, root phototropism and root curling. This result indicates that the pis1 mutant is specifically affected in the polar auxin transport system. This result also defines a genetic factor controlling both gravitropism and phototropism, and strongly indicates the involvement of auxin transport during both tropic responses. NPA, 2,3,5-triiodobenzoic acid (TIBA) and 9-hydroxyfluorene-9-carboxylic acid (HFCA) represent different classes of auxin transport inhibitors. The pis1 mutation conferred hypersensitivity to both NPA and TIBA but not to HFCA. These results show the genetic separation of the actions of NPA/TIBA and of HFCA. The PIS1 gene product might be specifically involved in the response pathway of NPA/TIBA, leading to interference with auxin-efflux carriers, and might act as a negative regulator of the action of NPA/TIBA.     

Cytokinin-induced root growth involves actin filament reorganization

Root architecture is developmentally plastic and affected by many intrinsic factors (e.g. plant hormones) and extrinsic factors (e.g. touch, gravity) in order to maximize nutrient and water acquisition. We have recently shown that asymmetrical exposure of cytokinin (CK) at the root tip causes root growth directional changes that is dependent on ethylene signaling and is potentiated by glucose signaling. Auxin homeostasis as maintained by auxin signaling and transport is also involved in CK-induced root cell elongation and differential growth. The signaling pathways eventually converge at actin filament organization since actin filament organization inhibitor latrunculin B (Lat B) can also induce similar growth. We, show that CK can actually alter actin filament organization as seen in actin binding protein 35S::GFP-ABD2-GFP transgenic lines as is also altered by auxin polar transport inhibitor 1-N-naphthylphthalamic acid (NPA) and Lat B in different manners.     

The interaction between DCL1 and HYL1 is important for efficient and precise processing of pri-miRNA in plant microRNA biogenesis

It has been reported that some double-stranded RNA (dsRNA) binding proteins interact with small RNA biogenesis-related RNase III enzymes. However, their biological significance is poorly understood. Here we examine the relationship between the Arabidopsis microRNA- (miRNA) producing enzyme DCL1 and the dsRNA binding protein HYL1. In the hyl1-2 mutant, the processing steps of miR163 biogenesis were partially impaired; increased accumulation of pri-miR163 and reduced accumulation of short pre-miR163 and mature miR163 as well as misplaced cleavages in the stem structure of pri-miR163 were detected. These misplaced cleavages were similar to those previously observed in the dcl1-9 mutant, in which the second double-stranded RNA binding domain of the protein was disrupted. An immunoprecipitation assay using Agrobacterium-mediated transient expression in Nicotiana benthamiana showed that HYL1 was able to form a complex with wild-type DCL1 protein, but not with the dcl1-9 mutant protein. We also examined miR164b and miR166a biogenesis in hyl1-2 and dcl1-9. Increased accumulation of pri-miRNAs and reduced accumulation of pre-miRNAs and mature miRNAs were detected. Misplaced cleavage on pri-miR164b was observed only in dcl1-9 but not in hyl1-2, whereas not on pri-miR166a in either mutant. These results indicate that HYL1 has a function in assisting efficient and precise cleavage of pri-miRNA through interaction with DCL1.     

The rib1 mutant is resistant to indole-3-butyric acid, an endogenous auxin in Arabidopsis

The presence of indole-3-butyric acid (IBA) as an endogenous auxin in Arabidopsis has been recently demonstrated. However, the in vivo role of IBA remains to be elucidated. We present the characterization of a semi-dominant mutant that is affected in its response to IBA, but shows a wild-type response to indole-3-acetic acid (IAA), the predominant and most studied form of auxin. We have named this mutant rib1 for resistant to IBA. Root elongation assays show that rib1 is specifically resistant to IBA, to the synthetic auxin 2,4-dichlorophenoxyacetic acid, and to auxin transport inhibitors. rib1 does not display increased resistance to IAA, to the synthetic auxin naphthalene acetic acid, or to other classes of plant hormones. rib1 individuals also have other root specific phenotypes including a shortened primary root, an increased number of lateral roots, and a more variable response than wild type to a change in gravitational vector. Adult rib1 plants are morphologically indistinguishable from wild-type plants. These phenotypes suggest that rib1 alters IBA activity in the root, thereby affecting root development and response to environmental stimuli. We propose models in which RIB1 has a function in either IBA transport or response. Our experiments also suggest that IBA does not use the same mechanism to exit cells as does IAA and we propose a model for IBA transport.     

Reduced naphthylphthalamic acid binding in the tir3 mutant of Arabidopsis is associated with a reduction in polar auxin transport and diverse morphological defects.

Polar auxin transport plays a key role in the regulation of plant growth and development. To identify genes involved in this process, we have developed a genetic procedure to screen for mutants of Arabidopsis that are altered in their response to auxin transport inhibitors. We recovered a total of 16 independent mutants that defined seven genes, called TRANSPORT INHIBITOR RESPONSE (TIR) genes. Recessive mutations in one of these genes, TIR3, result in altered responses to transport inhibitors, a reduction in polar auxin transport, and a variety of morphological defects that can be ascribed to changes in indole-3-acetic acid distribution. Most dramatically, tir3 seedlings are strongly deficient in lateral root production, a process that is known to depend on polar auxin transport from the shoot into the root. In addition, tir3 plants display a reduction in apical dominance as well as decreased elongation of siliques, pedicels, roots, and the inflorescence. Biochemical studies indicate that tir3 plants have a reduced number of N-1-naphthylphthalamic (NPA) binding sites, suggesting that the TIR3 gene is required for expression, localization, or stabilization of the NPA binding protein (NBP). Alternatively, the TIR3 gene may encode the NBP. Because the tir3 mutants have a substantial defect in NPA binding, their phenotype provides genetic evidence for a role for the NBP in plant growth and development.     

Complex regulation of Arabidopsis AGR1/PIN2-mediated root gravitropic response and basipetal auxin transport by cantharidin-sensitive protein phosphatases

Polar auxin transport, mediated by two distinct plasma membrane-localized auxin influx and efflux carrier proteins/complexes, plays an important role in many plant growth and developmental processes including tropic responses to gravity and light, development of lateral roots and patterning in embryogenesis. We have previously shown that the Arabidopsis AGRAVITROPIC 1/PIN2 gene encodes an auxin efflux component regulating root gravitropism and basipetal auxin transport. However, the regulatory mechanism underlying the function of AGR1/PIN2 is largely unknown. Recently, protein phosphorylation and dephosphorylation mediated by protein kinases and phosphatases, respectively, have been implicated in regulating polar auxin transport and root gravitropism. Here, we examined the effects of chemical inhibitors of protein phosphatases on root gravitropism and basipetal auxin transport, as well as the expression pattern of AGR1/PIN2 gene and the localization of AGR1/PIN2 protein. We also examined the effects of inhibitors of vesicle trafficking and protein kinases. Our data suggest that protein phosphatases, sensitive to cantharidin and okadaic acid, are likely involved in regulating AGR1/PIN2-mediated root basipetal auxin transport and gravitropism, as well as auxin response in the root central elongation zone (CEZ). BFA-sensitive vesicle trafficking may be required for the cycling of AGR1/PIN2 between plasma membrane and the BFA compartment, but not for the AGR1/PIN2-mediated root basipetal auxin transport and auxin response in CEZ cells.     

AUX1 promotes lateral root formation by facilitating indole-3-acetic acid distribution between sink and source tissues in the Arabidopsis seedling

Arabidopsis root architecture is regulated by shoot-derived signals such as nitrate and auxin. We report that mutations in the putative auxin influx carrier AUX1 modify root architecture as a result of the disruption in hormone transport between indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) source and sink tissues. Gas chromatography-selected reaction monitoring-mass spectrometry measurements revealed that the aux1 mutant exhibited altered IAA distribution in young leaf and root tissues, the major IAA source and sink organs, respectively, in the developing seedling. Expression studies using the auxin-inducible reporter IAA2::uidA revealed that AUX1 facilitates IAA loading into the leaf vascular transport system. AUX1 also facilitates IAA unloading in the primary root apex and developing lateral root primordium. Exogenous application of the synthetic auxin 1-naphthylacetic acid is able to rescue the aux1 lateral root phenotype, implying that root auxin levels are suboptimal for lateral root primordium initiation in the mutant.     

The Arabidopsis PLEIOTROPIC DRUG RESISTANCE8/ABCG36 ATP Binding Cassette Transporter Modulates Sensitivity to the Auxin Precursor Indole-3-Butyric Acid

Plants have developed numerous mechanisms to store hormones in inactive but readily available states, enabling rapid responses to environmental changes. The phytohormone auxin has a number of storage precursors, including indole-3-butyric acid (IBA), which is apparently shortened to active indole-3-acetic acid (IAA) in peroxisomes by a process similar to fatty acid β-oxidation. Whereas metabolism of auxin precursors is beginning to be understood, the biological significance of the various precursors is virtually unknown. We identified an Arabidopsis thaliana mutant that specifically restores IBA, but not IAA, responsiveness to auxin signaling mutants. This mutant is defective in PLEIOTROPIC DRUG RESISTANCE8 (PDR8)/PENETRATION3/ABCG36, a plasma membrane–localized ATP binding cassette transporter that has established roles in pathogen responses and cadmium transport. We found that pdr8 mutants display defects in efflux of the auxin precursor IBA and developmental defects in root hair and cotyledon expansion that reveal previously unknown roles for IBA-derived IAA in plant growth and development. Our results are consistent with the possibility that limiting accumulation of the IAA precursor IBA via PDR8-promoted efflux contributes to auxin homeostasis.