Immunological study and hemolytic activity of the venom of the horned viper, Cerastes cerastes (Linne, 1758) (Reptilia, Viperidae)

The immunological study of the venom of the Horned Viper, Cerastes cerastes (Linné, 1758) points out eight fractions from which the components have various hemolyticus actions.     

The quantities of dried venom collected from specimens of Vipera ammodytes L., 1758 (Reptilia, Viperidae) in captivity in Bulgaria

Some researches have been made to obtain more data about quantities of dried venom collected from Vipera ammodytes L., 1758 in captivity. The minimal quantity of dried venom collected by exemplar is 9.7 mg to 36.4 mg and the maximal quantity is 49.0 mg to 90.3 mg. From 810 exemplars of V. ammodytes of Bulgaria and 9 months of investigations, 10597 samples were made, with a total of 298.164 g of dried venom (average for animal: 28.14 mg).     

Comparative morphology of the skin of Natrix tessellata (family: Colubridae) and Cerastes vipera (family: Viperidae)

We studied beneficial difference of the skin of two snakes. Two snakes were chosen from two different habitats and two families: Colubridae (Natrix tessellata) and Viperidae (Cerastes vipera). The investigations were performed by light and electron microscopy. Histologically, the skin of the studied species show pronounced modifications that correlated with functional demands. The scales in Natrix tessellata overlapped slightly, while in Cerastes vipera they were highly overlapped. SEM shows that scales of Natrix tessellata had bidentate tips while the scales of Cerastes vipera were keeled. Histochemically, in both studied species, melanocytes and collagenous fibres were distributed throughout the dermis. Polysaccharides were highly concentrated in the epidermis and dermis of both species while proteins were highly concentrated only in the epidermis. Transmission electron microscopy (TEM) showed that the skin of both snakes consisted of keratins located in the epidermis. Some lipids and mucus were incorporated into the outer scale surfaces such that lipids were part of the fully keratinised hard layer of the snakes' skins. Lipids are probably responsible for limiting water loss and ion movements across the skin. Melanosomes from epidermal melanocytes were present only in Cerastes vipera. In aggregate, these results indicate that snakeskin may provide an ecological indicator whereby epidermal and integumentary specializations may be ecologically correlated.     

Phylogeny of the vipers of the Caucasus (Reptilia, Viperidae)

Phylogenetic relationships for five taxa of Palearctic vipers (genus Vipera ) from the Caucasian region were revealed by cladistic analyses of separate and combined morphological and biochemical characters. The different data sets yielded largely congruent cladograms. Vipera berus from Sweden was included as an ingroup and V. aspis was used for outgroup comparison. For V. kaznakovi and V. dinniki , three and four different sub-populations, respectively, were treated as independent terminal taxa in the analyses. The most parsimonious cladograms confirmed the systematic positions of these populations, discussed in a recent study, and support the hypothesis that the montane populations of the western main Caucasus comprise one polymorphie species: V. dinniki.
Analyses of combined biochemical and morphological data generated two equally parsimonious cladograms (for all ingroups compared), but yielded only one fully resolved topology when ingroups were condensed to the species level: ( berus ((renardi ('ursinii'-eriwanensis )))( dinnikikaznakovi )).     

The status of the Badger Meles meles (L., 1758) (Carnivora, Mustelidae) in Europe

The Eurasian Badger occurs throughout the Palaearctic, and in all states of Europe west of the border with the former Soviet Union. Within this area it is absent only from the arctic zones, high-altitude areas, and some islands. The Badger is currently a protected species in the UK, the Irish Republic, Spain, Portugal, Italy, Belgium, the Netherlands, Albania, Greece, Estonia, Luxembourg and Hungary, but Luxembourg and Hungary are to reconsider protected status. Elsewhere, the species is either considered as small-game or as a pest, hunting being regulated by closed seasons. At present Finland and Burgenland (Austria) afford protection to breeding females, whilst Bulgaria, Macedonia and the Austrian Bundesländer of Steiermark and Salzburg permit Badger hunting throughout the year. Where the species is protected, provisions usually exist for the removal or culling of ‘pest’ individuals. The official European game-bag currently totals about 118,000 Badgers, but poaching is common, particularly in the UK and Ireland. Published population estimates, coupled with national population minima obtained by extrapolation from game-bag statistics, indicate a minimum European Badger population of 1,220,000; the true figure may exceed this considerably. Badger populations appear to be either stable or increasing throughout much of Europe, although no data are currently available for the populations of Greece, Italy, Spain, Croatia, Bosnia-Hercegovina and Portugal. Badgers are uncommon in the Netherlands, Estonia, Belgium, the Slovak Republic, and possibly Poland. Only the populations of Albania and possibly of some parts of the former Yugoslavia appear to be decreasing. The Dutch population remains at considerable risk, despite modest recent increases. The population status of the endemic sub-species of Crete and Rhodes remain uncertain and require urgent clarification. A series of management recommendations are proposed to improve the status of the Badger in Europe.     

Morphology and taxonomic status of the grass snake, Natrix natrix (L.) (Reptilia, Squamata, Colubridae) on the island of Gotland, Sweden

The isolated population of grass snakes, Natrix natrix (L.), on the island of Gotland in die Baltic Sea is described and illustrated. Comparisons are made with the surrounding mainland grass snake. On the basis of morphological and ecological divergence, the conclusion is drawn that the Gotland population represents a new subspecies.     

Molecular phylogeography of endangered sharp-snouted pitviper (Deinagkistrodon acutus; Reptilia, Viperidae) in Mainland China

Using phylogenetic and population genetic approaches, the present study reports the phylogeographic structure of the sharp-snouted pitviper (Deinagkistrodon acutus), a threatened snake species with commercial and medicinal importance in China. The entire mitochondrial ND2 gene (NADH dehydrogenase subunit 2) sequences of 86 individuals of D. acutus from 14 localities across its range in China were determined. Based on the results of phylogenetic analyses, distribution of diagnostic sites, haplotype network, and AMOVA hierarchical analysis, an east-west division of the whole D. acutus population could be observed. Geographically, a line formed by a lake, river, and mountain chain (the Poyang Lake, Gan River to the southern end of the Wuyi Mountains), results in vicariance and approximately vertically splits the range into two and the whole population into two main lineages (western and eastern). The bifurcating tree suggested generally west to east dispersal trend. The data fit the isolation by distance (IBD) model well. Star-like clusters in haplotype network, significantly negative values of Fs statistics, and unimodal mismatch distributions all suggest recent demographic expansions in four areas. The results show that isolation, dispersal, bottleneck, and expansion jointly constitute the history of D. acutus. In a haplotype network, the excessive predominance of central haplotypes, few medium-frequency haplotypes, predominance (73.1%) of the singletons among the derived haplotypes, most of which are connected to the central haplotype by only one mutational step, unsymmetrical campanulate unimodal curve of mismatch distributions and leftwards shift of the peaks, all suggest that the whole D. acutus population is a young population with low genetic diversity. Based on the data, the first priority for conservation action should be given to the Huangshan unit.     

A light microscopic study of the mononuclear cells infiltrating skin homografts in the garter snake, Thamnophis sirtalis (Reptilia: Colubridae)

The rejection of skin homografts in the snake, Thamnophis sirtalis is preceded by an infiltration of mononuclear cells into the graft bed. The initial arrangement of infiltrating cells in perivascular halos suggests that these cells emigrate from the blood stream of the host. A cytological study showed that the vast majority of the cells can be classified as small and mediumsized lymphocytes, monocytes and macrophages. Early stages of infiltration were associated with large proportions of lymphocytes while later stages were characterized by a predominance of macrophages. It was concluded that the mononuclear cells associated with graft rejection include large proportions of lymphocytes and macrophages and not just one kind of lymphoid cell.     

Vipera pontica sp.n., a new viper species in the kaznakovi group (Reptilia, Viperidae) from northeastern Turkey and adjacent Transcaucasia

Vipera pontica sp.n. from northeastern Turkey and Transcaucasia is a member of the Vipera kaznakovi group characterized by partial fragmentation of frontal and parietals, sharp canthus rostralis, and a colour pattern on the head of the Vipera dinnicki type. It differs from all vipers in the Near and Middle East in having an upturned but hornless snout, and in a number of scalation and colour pattern characters. It is most similar to the west European V. aspis, but differs in having a yellow green tail tip, more loreals and fewer subcaudals. The affinities to the latter species as well as to V. barani are discussed.     

Reproduction of the colonial hydroid Obelia geniculata (L., 1758) (Cnidaria,Hydrozoa) in the White Sea

Populations of the colonial hydroid Obelia geniculata in the White Sea reproduce asexually by frustule formation. Young medusae appear in the plankton during July and August. The number of medusae rarely exceeds 36 per m³, and the average number varies every year from 0.4 to 10 per m³. The size of medusae is smaller than reported from other regions. The umbrella of the largest recorded medusa was only 0.57 mm in diameter and the specimen had just 35 tentacles. Only a few mature medusae were found during the study. The colonies in the White Sea are epiphytic and grow only on laminarian thalli. At the beginning of July there are no colonies on thalli from the upper subtidal zone. By the end of August, colonies of O.␣geniculata had increased in density to 30 per m². Hydroid recruitment was attributed to active frustule production by colonies living below that zone. The frustules detach from the stems of the hydroids and are found in plankton. Production of frustules on branches occurs continuously during colony growth until water temperatures climb above 0 °C. We found that water temperature in this Arctic environment is generally too low for medusa maturation and planula development in the species. Propagation by frustule formation is the principal means of reproduction in Obelia geniculata within the White Sea, and this phenomenon accounts for the species being a dominant epiphyte on laminarian thalli there.     

A new subspecies of the subalpine meadow viper, Vipera ursinii (Bonaparte) (Reptilia, Viperidae), from Greece

An isolated group of populations of the subalpine meadow viper, Vipera ursinii , from the southern Pindos mountains in Greece is described as a new subspecies. They differ from all other ursinii populations in a number of morphological characters, such as: shorter tail with a low number of subcaudals (lowest for the species); nasal normally divided into two plates or united with nasorostralia; low number of supralabials (6); first three supralabials very large while following ones are much reduced (less than half the height of anterior ones); third supralabial below orbit; lateral blotches and spots on body absent or weakly visible (mainly in some males and juveniles); no dark spots on cheek, labials and lateral and dorsal sides of head (except occipital and postorbital stripes); dorsal zig-zag band markedly jagged or only consisting of a narrow vertebral line.     

Visceral anatomy of ocean sunfish (Mola mola (L., 1758), Molidae,Tetraodontiformes) and angler (Lophius piscatorius (L., 1758), Lophiidae,Lophiiformes) investigated by non-invasive imaging techniques

The purpose of this work is to examine the gross visceral anatomy of ocean sunfish and angler using non-invasive imaging techniques: computed tomography imaging (CT) and magnetic resonance imaging (MRI). Similarities and differences in the internal organisation of these two species are verified. Both species lack a swimbladder and present a significant asymmetry in the hepatic lobes, an elongated bile duct terminating close to the stomach, a compact thyroid embedded in a blood lacuna, and very reduced brain and spinal cord. These observations are important in regard to the close relationships between Tetraodontiformes and Lophiiformes, established by several molecular works, but not yet confirmed by morpho-anatomical data. However the occurrence of these features has to be examined in other taxa before phylogenetic hypotheses are proposed.     

Differences in endothelin receptor types in the vasculature of Bothrops jararaca (Viperidae) and Oxyrhopus guibei (Colubridae) snakes

Endothelins (ETs) are vasoactive peptides evolutionary well conserved that exert their effects through two specific receptors (ET(A) and ET(B)) widely distributed in all vertebrates. In snakes, the presence and function of endothelins and their receptors are still scarcely described. We have recently demonstrated the presence of ET(A) and ET(B2) receptors in the snake Bothrops jararaca (Bj). In the present work we showed that distinctively from Bj, the vascular contraction induced by endothelin in Oxyrhopus guibei (Og) snake is mediated only by ET(A) receptors. Selective ET(B) agonists (SRTX-c and IRL(1620)) and antagonists (IRL(1038) and BQ(788)) were ineffective in Og preparations of isolated aorta. We also showed that ET-1 response on Og arterial blood pressure was monophasic hypertensive as opposed to biphasic (hypotension followed by hypertension) in Bj. Furthermore, we characterized the relaxing properties of endothelin receptor ET(B1) in pre-contracted aorta preparations. We showed that IRL(1620) induced relaxation of pre-contracted Bj aorta but was ineffective in relaxing Og preparations. IRL(1620) relaxing effect on Bj aorta was abolished by l-NAME, indicating involvement of NO release, and was reduced by selective ET(B) antagonists. Our findings suggest that Og snake has a more primitive spectrum of ET receptors (only ET(A) receptor) than Bj (presence of ET(A), ET(B1) and ET(B2) receptors).     

Growth and reproduction in the Icelandic common seal (Phoca vitulina L., 1758)

Length, weight and maturity were studied in relation to age in the common seal (Phoca vitulina vitulina L., 1758), collected during the periods 1979-1983 and 1990-2000 in Icelandic waters. The maximum age of common seal observed was 36 years for females and 30 years for males. For common seal females and males, asymptotic length and weight were 161 cm and 93 kg and 174 cm and 97 kg, respectively, showing slight sexual dimorphism in size. The condition of adult females, measured as fat thickness at the lower end of the sternum, was lower in the period 1979-1983 than in 1990-2000 during June-September, the breeding and mating time of the Icelandic common seal. Males reached sexual maturity between 5 and 7 years, whereas 50% of females did so at age 4 years. Including the length and age interaction term in the logistic regression model for the maturity of females significantly improved it. Thus, body size matters in the onset of maturity. The mean birthing date for the Icelandic common seal was found to be in early June. A comparison of animals collected in the two periods 1979-1983 and 1990-2000 did not show significant differences in growth and the average age of sexual maturity for either males or females. The observed decline of the Icelandic common seal population is most probably caused by increased mortality, due to exploitation and accidental by-catch in gill-nets, rather than a decrease in fecundity.     

Diel pattern of first downstream post-emergence displacement in grayling, Thymallus thymallus (L., 1758)

The activity rhythm of emerging grayling, Thymallus thymallus , fry was studied under semi-natural rearing conditions, using special traps buried in the gravel. Emergence was mainly diurnal with a maximum in the first hours of daylight. Fry rested at the emergence site during the daylight and moved downstream at night, particularly during the first 3 hours of darkness. These results are compared with the known activity patterns of other salmonids.     

Winter diet composition of the golden jackal (Canis aureus L., 1758) in Serbia

The winter diet composition of golden jackals was determined by analysing the stomach contents of 248 specimens collected between December and February 2005–2009 at six localities in Serbia. The average weight of stomach contents was 189.9 ± 137.3 g. At all localities, livestock carcasses were the primary food category (frequency 56.1%, biomass 77.7%). The secondary food category consisted of small mammals taken as live prey (frequency 20.7%, biomass 5.2%). Other food categories were present less frequently (roe deer, wild boar, hare, and birds), and rarely (plant material, dogs, carnivores, lizards, and inedible inorganic material). No statistically significant differences were found in diet between jackals from different localities. The only difference was found between yearlings and adults with regard to the consumed biomass (%B). The analysis of the winter diet of golden jackals in Serbia indicates that the species has opportunistic feeding habits consisting primarily of easily accessible food sources.     

Cytopathological process by multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus in the testis of Bombyx mori L., 1758 (Lepidoptera: Bombycidae)

A cytopathological methodology was used to analyze infection by Bombyx mori multiple nucleopolyhedrovirus (BmMNPV), a geographic isolate of the family Baculoviridae, in the caterpillar testes of the B. mori. Japanese B. mori strain caterpillar, fifth instar, were inoculated with BmMNPV and their testes were collected and processed for light and transmission electronic microscopy. Epithelial coating cells and interfollicular septa in testes were susceptible to BmMNPV. The first evidence of infection was detected on the 6th day post-inoculation (p.i.) in the external epithelium, and on the 7th day p.i. in the internal epithelium and interfollicular septa. Cytopathological characteristics consisted of hypertrophied nuclei, the formation of virogenic stroma, and the occlusion of virions in polyhedron protein crystals in several stages of development. At the end of the infectious process, cell lysis and release of polyhedra into the extracellular medium occurred. Histopathology revealed early infection foci in the surrounding regions of tracheal insertions, thus underlining the role of the trachea as an infection-spreading organ in insects. This spreading occurs through penetration of the basal lamina, which facilitates entry of the budded virus into the testis. Additionally, an alignment of a partial sequence of the ORF 14 of the BmMNPV geographic isolate with other NPV certified the virus genera.     

Ultrastructure of the neuromuscular system of the polyp of Aurelia aurita L., 1758 (Cnidaria,scyphozoa)

Fine structural study indicates that the neuromuscular system of stage I polyps of Aurelia aurita is exclusively ectodermal. The three major muscle fields are the radial muscles of the oral disc, the longitudinal muscles of the tentacles, and the muscle cords of the septae and the column; the muscle fields are in physical continuity at the peristomial pits and share a common innervation and type of myofibril. The myofibril is striated in the tentacle base, in the outer oral disc, and in the upper part of the muscle cord; it grades into a smooth muscle toward the tentacle tip, the mouth, and the lower part of the cord. There is a fourth field of longitudinal smooth muscle in the pharynx. The nervous system consists of an epithelial sensory cell in the tentacle and a single type of neuron found in the subepithelial layer of the tentacle, oral disc, and muscle cord. The lack of gap junctions suggests that there is no nonnervous conduction system. The subepithelial layer also contains three types of fibers and a type of soma which cannot be characterized as neuronal. The soma is identified as the “neurosecretory cell” described in Chrysaora. The absence of neuromuscular elements in the column and stolon distinguishes the Aurelia aurita collected from Washington, USA, from English polyps previously described.