SURGICAL TREATMENT OF CONVERGENT STRABISMUS

In convergent strabismus, glasses, visual training and exercises are often helpful, but operation is usually needed in addition to produce a functional or cosmetic cure.Babies who are born cross-eyed should be examined early and nonsurgical treatment started so that proper visual appreciation will be developed in both eyes.Children in whom strabismus develops some time after birth (usually between 18 months and six years of age) should be examined with atropine, glasses prescribed when indicated and full medical treatment instituted. If those measures fail, operation should be done on one or both eyes, the operation depending on the magnitude of the deviation.     

Binocular single vision and perceptual processing.

Stimuli with small binocular disparities are seen as single, despite their differing visual directions for the two eyes. Such stimuli also yield stereopsis, but stereopsis and single vision can be dissociated. The occurrence of binocular single vision depends not only on the disparities of individual stimulus elements, but also on the geometrical relation of different parts of the pattern presented to each eye. A pair of vertical bars with opposite binocular disparities is seen as single if the pair is moderately widely spaced but not if it is narrow. Vertical alignment and identity in length of such bars also increase the occurrence of double vision. It is argued that these effects reflect the extraction of features of the monocular patterns, with these detected monocular features determining the binocular percept. Single and double vision of bars differing in orientation can be similarly analysed. The occurrence of relatively elaborate processing of monocular signals does not exclude the possibility that binocular interaction can occur between signals that have not been so processed. Multiple sites or types of binocular interaction are likely.     

Indicators used in livestock to assess unconsciousness after stunning: a review

Assessing unconsciousness is important to safeguard animal welfare shortly after stunning at the slaughter plant. Indicators that can be visually evaluated are most often used when assessing unconsciousness, as they can be easily applied in slaughter plants. These indicators include reflexes originating from the brain stem (e.g. eye reflexes) or from the spinal cord (e.g. pedal reflex) and behavioural indicators such as loss of posture, vocalisations and rhythmic breathing. When physically stunning an animal, for example, captive bolt, most important indicators looked at are posture, righting reflex, rhythmic breathing and the corneal or palpebral reflex that should all be absent if the animal is unconscious. Spinal reflexes are difficult as a measure of unconsciousness with this type of stunning, as they may occur more vigorous. For stunning methods that do not physically destroy the brain, for example, electrical and gas stunning, most important indicators looked at are posture, righting reflex, natural blinking response, rhythmic breathing, vocalisations and focused eye movement that should all be absent if the animal is unconscious. Brain stem reflexes such as the cornea reflex are difficult as measures of unconsciousness in electrically stunned animals, as they may reflect residual brain stem activity and not necessarily consciousness. Under commercial conditions, none of the indicators mentioned above should be used as a single indicator to determine unconsciousness after stunning. Multiple indicators should be used to determine unconsciousness and sufficient time should be left for the animal to die following exsanguination before starting invasive dressing procedures such as scalding or skinning. The recording and subsequent assessment of brain activity, as presented in an electroencephalogram (EEG), is considered the most objective way to assess unconsciousness compared with reflexes and behavioural indicators, but is only applied in experimental set-ups. Studies performed in an experimental set-up have often looked at either the EEG or reflexes and behavioural indicators and there is a scarcity of studies that correlate these different readout parameters. It is recommended to study these correlations in more detail to investigate the validity of reflexes and behavioural indicators and to accurately determine the point in time at which the animal loses consciousness.     

双眼倾斜效应中频率和相对距离乘积的恒常性

双眼协同的功能不仅是扩大视野,而且更为重要的是人和动物获得对环境特有的立体感觉。但立体视觉信息处理机制至今尚不清楚,有待深入研究。 本文利用自己研制的一种多功能立体图形发生器产生的亮度以正弦波调制的光栅条纹作为刺激图形,设计并做了一系列有关频差倾斜现象;其次,分别对不同中心频率和不同观察距离下,左、右刺激器处于与被试者不同距离下频差倾斜观象中的频差与倾斜度的关系进行了研究。结果表明,对于频率差分析存在着频率和相对远近乘积的恒常性,这是判断物体精细凸凹的一种global stereopsis性质的心理规律。     

Treatmenf of optic neuritis by retrobulbar injection of triamcinolone.

In a single-blind controlled clinical trial patients with optic neuritis caused by demyelination were given a single retrobulbar injection of triamcinolone. Though the treated group showed a trend towards more rapid recovery of vision than the controls, there was no significant difference in visual acuity, colour vision, or visual fields during the first six months after treatment. We conclude that routine use of corticosteroids is not justified in unilateral optic neuritis when vision in the other eye is good. Shortening the period of visual disability in bilateral disease or unilateral disease when vision in the other eye is poor, however, may be justifiable.     

体视感觉“崩溃”的阀值

视差是产生体视感觉的主要因素.但视差过大时这种体视感觉也不能存在.这时随着双眼视差的增大从融合为单一像到成复像,而引起体视“崩溃”.本文对正常人和体视欠缺者用心理物理试验方法结合视觉诱发电位(VEP)分析,测量了人眼体视“崩溃”的视差上限阈值.并在改变刺激图形亮度和面积时加以比较.我们的结果表明正常人体视上限阈值,其视差高于2度,在某些情况下这个“崩溃”阈值达到3度.体视欠缺者的“崩溃”阈值约为1.5度.亮度和面积变小会使体视“崩溃”阈值下降,但在这种情况下体视欠缺者的“崩溃”阈值不会下降.可以认为1.5度是人的最低上限阈值·体视存在时VEP的N峰潜伏期约为220—300ms,P_3峰在280—340ms之间.无体视现象(视差为零和过大)这两个峰的潜伏期明显加大.     

Technical realization of an LCD-based vision test device]

We describe a computer-aided self-test vision screener for testing near and far visual acuity. The device generates images separately for each eye on a LCD. Acuity can be measured in the range between 0.1 and 1.6 for any distance between 0.34 m and 6 m. In addition, it also enables testing for colour deficiency, phoria, stereopsis and contrast sensitivity. The device is fully automatic and enables self-testing of the above mentioned functions. Initial practical application in an industrial environment has demonstrated the practicability of the device.     

Retinol-binding protein-deficient mice: biochemical basis for impaired vision

We reported previously that mice lacking plasma retinol-binding protein (RBP) are phenotypically normal except that they display impaired vision at the time of weaning. This visual defect is associated with greatly diminished eyecup levels of retinaldehyde and is reversible if the mutants are maintained for several months on a vitamin A-sufficient diet. Here we provide a biochemical basis for the visual phenotype of RBP-deficient mice. This phenotype does not result from inadequate milk total retinol levels since these are not different for RBP-deficient and wild-type mice. The eye, unlike all other tissues that have been examined, takes up dietary retinol very poorly. Moreover, compared to other tissues, the eye displays a strong preference for retinol uptake when retinol is delivered bound to RBP. The poor uptake of dietary retinol by the eye coupled with its marked ability to take up retinol from RBP, we propose, provides a basis for the impaired vision observed in weanling RBP-deficient mice. Further study of the mutants suggests that the impaired vision is reversible because the eyes of mutant mice slowly acquire sufficient retinol from the low levels of retinol present in their circulation either bound to albumin or present in lipoprotein fractions. Thus, the eye is unlike other tissues in the body in that it shows a very marked preference for acquiring retinol needed to support vision from the retinol-RBP complex and is unable to meet adequately its retinol need through uptake of recently absorbed dietary retinol. This provides an explanation for the impaired vision phenotype of RBP-deficient mice.     

A discussion of the pediatric clinical guidelines

It is evident from both the AAO and AOA guideline position statements that a visual and eye examination is essential within the first few months of life. Thus, both groups recognize the importance of examining infants within the critical period of visual development. The adequacy of testing performed by lay screeners or primary care physicians to rule out all visual disorders is highly questionable. Photorefraction is a promising screening technique, but as yet needs to be validated by further study. The only adequate means of detecting early vision and eye disorders is through examination by an eye care professional. However, this conclusion immediately underscores the need for eye care professionals prepared to examine very young children. The primary eye care of children should not be considered the responsibility of a minority of ‘pediatric specialists’. Clinical techniques are currently available which would enable all practitioners to evaluate children in the first few months of life, a critical time for an initial evaluation. We believe it is essential for all eye care professionals to be trained in these basics of eye and vision care. The need for widespread pediatric training should be addressed when reviewing the clinical education of interns.Both guidelines yield valuable guidance and background information for the pediatric examination. The AOA guideline is more complete, and includes a useful bibliography. It is well researched, and should be particularly helpful to the newer practitioner. The AAO guideline provides less detailed guidance, and omits some newer and important examination techniques, such as preferential looking for visual acuity and spray application for administering drugs.The AOA and AAO pediatric clinical practice guidelines can serve as helpful examination tutorials for the practitioner. The guidelines do not address the decision making process of diagnosis and treatment options. The references included in the documents can help fill in the gaps, but would require a substantial commitment of time for research and study. We see the need for additional guidelines to help guide the process of difficult decision-making when the patient is ‘in the chair’. The publication of such second generation documents would serve eye care professionals in the total case management of the pediatric patient.     

Electrophysiological Correlates of Binocular Stereo Depth without Binocular Disparities

A small region of background presented to only one eye in an otherwise binocular display may, under certain conditions, be resolved in the visual system by interpreting the region as a small gap between two similar objects placed at different depths, with the gap hidden in one eye by parallax. This has been called monocular gap stereopsis. We investigated the electrophysiological correlate of this type of stereopsis by means of sum potential recordings in 12 observers, comparing VEP's for this stimulus ("Gillam Stereo", Author BG has strong reservations about this term) with those for similar stimuli containing disparity based depth and with no depth (flat). In addition we included several control stimuli. The results show a pronounced early negative potential at a latency of around 170 ms (N170) for all stimuli containing non- identical elements, be they a difference caused by binocular disparity or by completely unmatched monocular contours. A second negative potential with latency around 270 ms (N270), on the other hand, is present only with stimuli leading to fusion and the perception of depth. This second component is similar for disparity-based stereopsis and monocular gap, or "Gillam Stereo" although slightly more pronounced for the former. We conjecture that the first component is related to the detection of differences between the images of the two eyes that may then either be fused, leading to stereopsis and the corresponding second potential, or else to inhibition and rivalry without a later trace in the VEP. The finding that that "Gillam Stereo" leads to cortical responses at the same short latencies as disparity based stereopsis indicates that it may partly rely on quite early cortical mechanisms.     

Restoration of morphological and functional integrity in the regenerating eye of the giant African land snail Achatina fulica

To determine whether vision returns to its original state following eye removal in Achatina fulica, light and electron microscope examinations, electrophysiological recordings and behavioural tests were carried out on the regenerating snails. Reparative morphogenesis can result in the restoration of the peripheral sense organ even in the absence of complete regrowth of the tentacle, but it can also lead to the formation of aberrant regenerates. We found that anatomically and ultrastructurally the eyes of the ‘most normal’ regenerates were basically the same as the original eyes. Under normal conditions each eye is composed of a principal and an accessory eye, both sharing a common cornea. The only difference between regenerated and native eyes is the smaller size of the former, as a result of a reduced number of retinal cells. Electroretinographic responses revealed that the molecular mechanism of phototransduction is restored, in principle, but that flicker fusion frequency in the regenerated eye is significantly lower than in the normal eye. The directional movement to a visual stimulus (a black stripe of 45° width) had not completely recovered even 6 months after amputation. This suggests that the central projections of the optic nerve had not become fully re‐established at the time of testing.     

Cortical hypercolumn size determines stereo fusion limits

The size of a pair of cortical ocular dominance columns determines a basic anatomical module of V-1 which Hubel and Wiesel have termed the hypercolumn. Does this correspond to a basic functional, or psychophysically measurable, module as well? This is the basic question addressed in the present paper. Since the ocular dominance column architecture is presumed to be related to stereo vision, it is natural to assume that hypercolumn size should provide a modular basis for basic phenomena of stereopsis. In previous work, we have suggested that local nonlinear filtering via the cepstral transform, operating on a local window of cortical tissue scaled by hypercolumn size, provides such a modular model of stereopsis. In the present paper, we review this model and then discuss a number of issues related to the biological plausibility and implementation of this algorithm. Then, we present the main result of this paper: we have analyzed a number of experiments related to stereo fusion limits (Panum's area) and to disparity gradient and disparity scaling, and demonstrate that there is a simple unifying explanation for these phenomena in terms of a constant cortical module whose size is determined by a pair of ocular dominance columns. As a corollary, Panum's area must increase according to (inverse) cortical magnification factor. We show that this is supported by all existing experimental data.     

Vision Training Methods for Sports Concussion Mitigation and Management

There is emerging evidence supporting the use vision training, including light board training tools, as a concussion baseline and neuro-diagnostic tool and potentially as a supportive component to concussion prevention strategies. This paper is focused on providing detailed methods for select vision training tools and reporting normative data for comparison when vision training is a part of a sports management program. The overall program includes standard vision training methods including tachistoscope, Brock’s string, and strobe glasses, as well as specialized light board training algorithms. Stereopsis is measured as a means to monitor vision training affects. In addition, quantitative results for vision training methods as well as baseline and post-testing *A and Reaction Test measures with progressive scores are reported. Collegiate athletes consistently improve after six weeks of training in their stereopsis, *A and Reaction Test scores. When vision training is initiated as a team wide exercise, the incidence of concussion decreases in players who participate in training compared to players who do not receive the vision training. Vision training produces functional and performance changes that, when monitored, can be used to assess the success of the vision training and can be initiated as part of a sports medical intervention for concussion prevention.     

From optics to attention: visual perception in barn owls

Barn owls are nocturnal predators which have evolved specific sensory and morphological adaptations to a life in dim light. Here, some of the most fundamental properties of spatial vision in barn owls are reviewed. The eye with its tubular shape is rigidly integrated in the skull so that eye movements are very much restricted. The eyes are oriented frontally, allowing for a large binocular overlap. Accommodation, but not pupil dilation, is coupled between the two eyes. The retina is rod dominated and lacks a visible fovea. Retinal ganglion cells form a marked region of highest density that extends to a horizontally oriented visual streak. Behavioural visual acuity and contrast sensitivity are poor, although the optical quality of the ocular media is excellent. A low f-number allows high image quality at low light levels. Vernier acuity was found to be a hyperacute percept. Owls have global stereopsis with hyperacute stereo acuity thresholds. Neurons of the visual Wulst are sensitive to binocular disparities. Orientation based saliency was demonstrated in a visual-search experiment, and higher cognitive abilities were shown when the owl’s were able to use illusory contours for object discrimination.     

The visual functions of the complete colorblind

1. The visual functions of a completely colorblind individual are compared with those of the normal. The sensibility distribution in the spectrum has a maximum at 520 mmicro at all brightnesses and thus corresponds to rod vision alone. This is confirmed by studies of dark adaptation which show final thresholds like those usually found for rod vision. Dark adaptation, measured both centrally and peripherally in the retina, is a single continuous function, and regardless of the brightness of the preceding light adaptation, is of the rapid type only, such as that found for the normal following low light adaptation. Visual acuity also shows a single continuous function like that for rod vision. 2. Both critical fusion frequency and intensity discrimination show two sections, one at low and the other at high intensities with a sharp transition from one to the other. Intensity discrimination is as good as for the normal eye, and covers much the same range. The maximal critical fusion frequency is only about 20 cycles per second as compared to 55 cycles for the normal. 3. The two sections shown by the colorblind eye for intensity discrimination and fusion frequency possess the spectral sensitivity of rod vision since the relative positions on the intensity scale are not influenced by using different parts of the spectrum.     

Spectral analysis of respiratory parameters in defensive respiratory reflexes

A detailed analysis of respiratory signals in normal breathing and defensive respiratory reflexes was performed to obtain maximum information that can be used for modelling of respiratory processes. Physiological interpretation of the problem is difficult and requires further measurements to achieve convincing conclusions. We suggest therefore that the search for appropriate methodological backgrounds should contribute to further clarification of the problems concerned with reciprocal linkage of the respiratory signals. Appropriate attention must be paid to investigations aimed at explaining the regulatory mechanisms of breathing.     

Brain damage and global stereopsis.

When a single object lies in front of or beyond the plane of fixation its retinal image lies on disparate positions in the two eyes. This 'local' retinal disparity is an excellent cue to depth, and retinal disparties of a few seconds of arc are detectable by people and monkeys. However, most visual scenes produce a complex array of contours in each eye and we can detect the disparity in the arrays despite the ambiguous nature of the disparities, i.e. each contour in one eye could be related to any of several similar contours in the other eye. This ability, known as 'global' stereopsis, may be selectively impaired following brain damage in man. Global stereopsis was measured in rhesus monkeys before and after removing a different cortical visual area in different groups of animals. Only removal of the inferotemporal cortex impaired global stereopsis. The result is related to the findings with human patients and to receptive field properties of neurons in the inferotemporal cortex of monkeys.     

Crocodiles don't focus underwater

Summary Crocodilians are amphibious reptiles which hunt prey both on land and in water. Previous refractive and anatomical studies have suggested that their eyes can focus objects in air and that their ability to refocus the eye underwater may be limited. Examination of the plane of focus of six species of crocodilians both in air and underwater has revealed that they are generally well focused in air for distant targets and severely defocused underwater. These results suggest that sensory systems other than vision must play an important role in prey capture underwater.Abbreviation D diopter     

THRESHOLD INTENSITY OF ILLUMINATION AND FLICKER FREQUENCY FOR THE EYE OF THE SUN-FISH

The sun-fish Lepomis responds to a moving system of stripes by a motion of its body. By changing the velocity of motion of the stripe system different flicker frequencies can be produced and thus the relation of flicker frequency to critical intensity of illumination can be studied. Threshold illumination varies with flicker frequency in such a way that with increasing flicker frequency the intensity of illumination must be increased to produce a threshold response in the fish. The curve of critical illumination as a function of frequency is made up of two distinct parts. For an intensity range below 0.04 millilambert and flicker frequencies below 10 per second, the rods are in function. For higher intensities and flicker frequencies above 10, the cones come into play. The maximum frequency of flicker which can be perceived by the fish''s eye is slightly above 50 per second. The flicker curve for the eye of Lepomis can easily be compared with that for the human eye. The extent of the curve for the fish is greater at low illuminations, the fish being capable of distinguishing flicker at illuminations lower than can the human eye. The transition of rod vision to cone vision occurs for the fish and for the human eye at the same intensity and flicker frequency. The maximum frequency of flicker which can be perceived is for both about the same.     

Serial pattern evoked potential recording in a case of toxic optic neuropathy due to ethambutol

Visual evoked potentials (VEPs) were studied in a patient who developed visual impairment during ethambutol treatment. The ERG and the flash VEP were normal at the time of maximal visual loss, whereas pattern reversal VEPs 2 and 5 months after onset revealed evidence of severe bilateral optic nerve involvement, especially affecting macular fibres. Seven months after onset paramacular PNP complexes with a late positivity (scotomatous response) were recorded after pattern reversal and half-field stimulation, suggesting involvement of fibres subserving central vision. At the time when visual acuity was normal there was still electrophysiological evidence of a mild involvement of the anterior visual pathway. The papillomacular bundle seems to be especially involved in ethambutol eye toxicity.