The number and localisation of adenine nucleotide-binding sites in beef-heart mitochondrial ATPase (F1) determined by photolabelling with 8-azido-ATP and 8-azido-ADP

1. When irradiated 8-azido-ATP becomes covalently bound (as the nitreno compound) to beef-heart mitochondrial ATPase (F₁) as the triphosphate, either in the absence or presence of Mg²⁺, label covalently bound is not hydrolysed.

2. In the presence of Mg²⁺ the nitreno-ATP is bound to both the and β subunits, mainly (63%) to the subunits.

3. After successive photolabelling of F₁ with 8-azido-ATP (no Mg²⁺) and 8-azido-ADP (with Mg²⁺) 4 mol label is bound to F₁, 2 mol to the and 2 mol to the β subunits.

4. When the order of photolabelling is reversed, much less 8-nitreno-ATP is bound to F₁ previously labelled with 8-nitreno-ADP. It is concluded that binding to the -subunits hinders binding to the β subunits.

5. F₁ that has been photolabelled with up to 4 mol label still contains 2 mol firmly bound adenine nucleotides per mol F₁.

6. It is concluded that at least 6 sites for adenine nucleotides are present in isolated F₁.     

Localisation of adenine nucleotide-binding sites on beef-heart mitochondrial ATPase by photolabelling with 8-azido-ADP and 8-azido-ATP.

1. In addition to the previously studied 8-azido-ATP, 8-azido-ADP is a suitable photoaffinity label for beef-heart mitochondrial ATPase (F1). 2. Photolysis at 350 nm of 8-azido-ADP in the presence of isolated F1 leads to inactivation of ATPase activity. Both ATP and ADP (but not AMP) protect against the inactivation. 3. In the absence of Mg2+, 8-azido-ADP binds almost equally to the alpha and beta subunits of F1, whereas in the presence of Mg2+ the alpha subunits are predominantly labelled. 4. The ATPase activity is completely inhibited when two molecules of 8-azido-ADP are bound per molecule F1. 5. 8-Azido-ATP and ATP are competitive substrates for F1, indicating that in the presence of Mg2+ 8-azido-ATP binds to the same site as ATP. 6. The amount of tightly bound nucleotides in F1 is not significantly changed upon incubation with 8-azido-ATP either in the light or the dark. 7. 8-Azido-ATP is also a suitadrial particles, photolabelling leading to inactivation of ATPase activity. 9. Oxidative phosphorylation and the ATP-driven reduction of NAD+ by succinate are also inhibited by photolabelling Mg-ATP particles with 8-azido-ATP. 10. In contrast to the uncoupled ATPase activity, where the two ATP-binding sites do not interact, cooperation between the two sites is required for ATP hydrolysis coupled to reduction of NAD+ by succinate.     

Specific photolabelling of beef-heart mitochondrial ATPase by 8-azido-ATP

1. 8-Azido-ATP is a suitable photoaffinity label for beef-heart mitochondrial ATPase (F₁).2. 8-Azido-ATP is hydrolysed slowly by F₁ in the dark. Photolysis at 350 nm in the presence of F₁ leads to inhibition of the ATPase activity. The presence of ATP during illumination prevents the inhibition. Illumination of F₁ in the absence of 8-azido-ATP causes no inhibition.3. Added Mg²⁺ is not necessary for the binding of the 8-azido-ATP to F₁.4. 8-Azido-ATP binds specifically to the β subunits of F₁.5. The ATPase activity is completely inhibited when 2 mol of 8-azido-ATP are bound per mol F₁.     

The number and localisation of adenine nucleotide-binding sites in beef-heart mitochondrial ATPase (F1) determined by photolabelling with 8-azido-ATP and 8-azido-ADP

1. When irradiated 8-azido-ATP becomes covalently bound (as the nitreno compound) to beef-heart mitochondrial ATPase (F1) as the triphosphate, either in the absence or presence of Mg2+, label covalently bound is not hydrolysed. 2. In the presence of Mg2+ the nitreno-ATP is bound to both the alpha and beta subunits, mainly (63%) to the alpha subunits. 3. After successive photolabelling of F1 with 8-azido-ATP (no Mg2+) and 8-azido-ADP (with Mg2+) 4 mol label is bound to F1, 2 mol to the alpha and 2 mol to the beta subunits. 4. When the order of photolabelling is reversed, much less 8-nitreno-ATP is bound to F1 previously labelled with 8-nitreno-ADP. It is concluded that binding to the alpha-subunits hinders binding to the beta subunits. 5. F1 that has been photolabelled with up to 4 mol label still contains 2 mol firmly bound adenine nucleotides per mol F1. 6. It is concluded that at least 6 sites for adenine nucleotides are present in isolated F1.     

Specific photolabelling of beef-heart mitochondrial ATPase by 8-azido-ATP.

1. 8-Azido-ATP is a suitable photoaffinity label for beef-heart mitochondrial ATPase (F1) 2. 8-Azido-ATP is hydrolysed slowly by F1 in the dark. Photolysis at 350 nm in the presence of F1 leads to inhibition of the ATPase activity. The presence of ATP during illumination prevents the inhibition. Illumination of F1 in the absence of 8-azido-ATP causes no inhibition. 3. Added Mg2+ is not necessary for the binding of the 8-azido-ATP to F1. 4. 8-Azido-ATP binds specifically to the beta subunits of F1. 5. The ATPase activity is completely inhibited when 2 mol of 8-azido-ATP are bound per mol F1.     

Modification of liver mitochondrial lipids and of adenine nucleotide translocase and oxidative phosphorylation by cold adaptation

The decrease in respiration rate following thyroidectomy is preceded by changes in the lipid composition of the mitochondrial membrane (Hoch, F.L., Subramanian, C., Dhopeshwarkar, G.A. and Mead, J.F. (1981) Lipids 16, 328–334) and in concert, changes in the kinetic parameters of the adenine nucleotide translocase (Mak, I.T., Shrago, E. and Elson, C.E. (1981) Fed. Proc. 40, 398). To demonstrate that physiological adaptation also involves this sequence of events, rats were housed at 8°C for 3–4 weeks. Cold adaptation resulted in a modest (5%) increase in the unsaturation index for the mitochondrial fatty acids comprised of a significant increase in arachidonic acid and a reciprocal decrease in linoleic acid. Phospholipid analysis indicated that cold adaptation increased the mitochondrial phosphatidylethanolamine and reciprocally decreased the phosphatidylcholine content. Concomitantly, cold adaptation resulted in 25–30% increases in rat liver mitochondrial respiratory activities without changing the respiratory control or ADP/O ratios. The kinetic parameters of the adenine nucleotide translocase were determined by the back-exchange method (Pfaff, E. and Klingenberg, M. (1968) Eur. J. Biochem. 6, 66–79). At 0–4 and 10°C, the V_max and K_m of the cold-adapted rat liver adenine nucleotide translocase were not distinguishable from the control values. The K_i values determined by Dixon plot studies for atractylate and palmitoyl-CoA were also comparable between the two groups. However, at 25 and 37°C, cold-adapted rat liver adenine nucleotide translocase exhibited a 20% increase in V_max and a 20% decrease in K_m for external ADP. The results suggest that one adaption to a cold environment involves hormone-mediated changes in the lipid composition in the mitochondrial membranes which in turn modulate the adenine nucleotide translocase and subsequent respiratory activities.     

Effect of the natural ATPase inhibitor on the binding of adenine nucleotides and inorganic phosphate to mitochondrial F1-ATPase

(1) Incubation of the beef heart mitochondrial ATPase, F₁ with Mg-ATP was required for the binding of the natural inhibitor, IF₁, to F₁ to form the inactive F₁-IF₁ complex. When F₁ was incubated in the presence of [¹⁴C]ATP and MgCl₂, about 2 mol ¹⁴C-labeled adenine nucleotides were found to bind per mol of F₁; the bound ¹⁴C-labeled nucleotides consisted of [¹⁴C]ADP arising from [¹⁴C]ATP hydrolysis and [¹⁴C]ATP. The ¹⁴C-labeled nucleotide binding was not prevented by IF₁. These data are in agreement with the idea that the formation of the F₁-IF₁ complex requires an appropriate conformation of F₁. (2) The ¹⁴C-labeled adenine nucleotides bound to F₁ following preincubation of F₁ with Mg-[¹⁴C]ATP could be exchanged with added [³H]ADP or [³H]ATP. No exchange occurred between added [³H]ADP or [³H]ATP and the ¹⁴C-labeled adenine nucleotides bound to the F₁-IF₁ complex. These data suggest that the conformation of F₁ in the isolated F₁-IF₁ complex is further modified in such a way that the bound ¹⁴C-labeled nucleotides are no longer available for exchange. (3) ³²P_i was able to bind to isolated F₁ with a stoichiometry of about 1 mol of P_i per mol of F₁ (Penefsky, H.S. (1977) J. Biol. Chem. 252, 2891–2899). There was no binding of ³²P_i to the F₁-IF₁ complex. Thus, not only the nucleotides sites, but also the P_i site, are masked from interaction with external ligands in the isolated F₁-IF₁ complex.     

The effect of dimethylsulfoxide on adenine nucleotide binding and ATP synthesis by beef-heart mitochondrial F1 ATPase.

Dimethylsulfoxide (Me2SO; 30%, v/v) promotes the formation of ATP from ADP and phosphate catalyzed by soluble mitochondrial F1 ATPase. The effects of this solvent on the adenine nucleotide binding properties of beef-heart mitochondrial F1 ATPase were examined. The ATP analog adenylyl-5'-imidodiphosphate bound to F1 at 1.9 and 1.0 sites in aqueous and Me2SO systems, respectively, with a KD value of 2.2 microM. Lower affinity sites were present also. Binding of ATP or adenylyl-5'-imidodiphosphate at levels near equimolar with the enzyme occurred to a greater extent in the absence of Me2SO. Addition of ATP to the nucleotide-loaded enzyme resulted in exchange of about one-half of the bound ATP. This occurred only in an entirely aqueous medium. ATP bound in Me2SO medium was not released by exogenous ATP. Comparison of the effect of different concentrations of Me2SO on ADP binding to F1 and ATP synthesis by the enzyme showed that binding of ADP was diminished by concentrations of Me2SO lower than those required to support ATP synthesis. However, one site could still be filled by ADP at concentrations of Me2SO optimal for ATP synthesis. This site is probably a noncatalytic site, since the nucleotide bound there was not converted to ATP in 30% Me2SO. The ATP synthesized by F1 in Me2SO originated from endogenous bound ADP. We conclude that 30% Me2SO affects the adenine nucleotide binding properties of the enzyme. The role of this in the promotion of the formation of ATP from ADP and phosphate is discussed.     

Regulation of phospholipid-ATPase complex interaction by the adenine nucleotide carrier

(1) The effect of phospholipids on a preparation containing the ATPase complex and the adenine nucleotide carrier is studied in the presence of ligands known to affect the conformation of these components of the mitochondrial inner membrane. (2) When ATPase activity is abolished by phospholipid depletion, the reactivation induced by phosphatidylcholine is prevented by the simultaneous addition of ATP. ADP partially reproduces the ATP effect. AMP, GTP, UTP and P_i are ineffective. (3) The influence of ATP is associated with reduced phospholipid binding to the membrane fragments and is reversible. The ATP effect on reconstitution is not manifest when phosphatidylcholine is added together with negatively charged phospholipids. (4) Carboxyatractyloside does not modify the phospholipid-ATPase complex interaction but bongkrekic acid is as effective as ATP. In the presence of ADP, the influence of bongkrekic acid is considerably increased. (5) It is concluded that the binding of ATP to the adenine nucleotide carrier enables the complex to select between the charged and uncharged phospholipids. As a result of the carrier conformational change, the ATPase complex is induced to prefer a negatively charged phospholipid environment.     

Interaction of high-affinity nucleotide binding sites in mitochondrial ATP synthesis and hydrolysis

The present study contributes to the problem of the dynamic structure of mitochondrial F1-ATPase and the functional interrelation of so-called tight nucleotide binding sites. Nucleotide analogs are used as a tool to differentiate two distinct functional states of the membrane-bound enzyme, proposed to reflect corresponding conformational states; they reveal F1-ATPase as a dual-state enzyme: ATP-synthetase, and ATP-hydrolase. The analogs used are 3-naphthoyl esters of AD(T)P, and 2(3)-O-trinitrophenyl ethers of AD(T)P. Both types of analogs act inversely to each other with respect to their relative effects on oxidative phosphorylation and on ATPase in submitochondrial vesicles. The respective ratios ofK _i versus both processes are 250/1 compared to 1/170. It is also shown that in the presence of the inhibitory 3-esters oxidative phosphorylation deviates from linear kinetics and that these inhibitors induce a lag time of oxidative phosphorylation depending on the initial pattern of nucleotides available to energized submitochondrial vesicles. The duration of the lag time coincides with the time course of displacement of the analog from a tight binding site. The conclusions of the study are: (a) the catalytic sites of F₁-ATP-synthetase are not operating independently from each other; they rather interact in a cooperative manner; (b) F₁-ATPase as a dual-state enzyme exhibits highly selective responses to tight binding of nucleotides or analogs in its energized (membrane-bound) state versus its nonenergized state, respectively.Abbreviations used: N-AD(T)P, 3-O-naphthoyl(1)-AD(T)P; DMAN-AD(T)P, 3-O-(5-dimethylaminonaphthoyl(1))-AD(T)P, also termed F-AD(T)P in previous papers because of its fluorescence; TNP-AD(T)P, 2(3)-O-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)-AD(T)P; FCCP,p-trifluoromethoxycarbonylcyanide phenylhydrazone.     

从ATPase8-6基因研究杂交多倍体鱼线粒体母性遗传

异源四倍体鲫鲤是世界上首例人工培育的两性可育并形成群体的且能自然繁殖的四倍体鱼。本文采用质粒克隆测序法测定了红鲫、异源四倍体鲫鲤、三倍体湘云鲫和三倍体湘云鲤的ATPase8和ATPase6基因全序列 ,结合鲤鱼、日本白鲫和斑马鱼的同源序列 ,对不同倍性水平鲤科鱼类的ATPase8和ATPase6基因进行了比较 ,分析了碱基组成、变异情况以及核苷酸和氨基酸序列差异。红鲫、鲤鱼、异源四倍体鲫鲤、日本白鲫、三倍体湘云鲫和三倍体湘云鲤之间的序列差异为 0 0 % - 1 3 4 % ,它们与外群斑马鱼之间的序列差异为 2 7 9% -31 0 %。用MEGA软件中的MP法、ME法、NJ法和UPGMA法构建分子系统树 ,得到了相似的拓扑结构。结果分析表明 ,人工杂交多倍体异源四倍体鲫鲤、三倍体湘云鲫和三倍体湘云鲤在线粒体ATPase8和ATPase6基因上具有严格的母性遗传特征。值得注意的是 ,异源四倍体鲫鲤经过 1 1代的繁育后 ,与其原始母本红鲫仍然保持了非常高的同源性 ,说明了新的异源四倍体基因库在线粒体ATPase8和ATPase6基因上拥有稳定的遗传特性。对不同倍性鲤科鱼类线粒体ATPase8和ATPase6基因的研究表明 ,ATPase8和ATPase6基因是杂交鱼后代遗传变异研究的一个很好的分子标记     

Loose and tight binding of adenine nucleotides by membrane-associated chloroplast ATPase

Steady-state binding of adenine nucleotides by thylakoid membranes is measured by employing a centrifugation technique. By this method tightly bound nonexchangeable nucleotides can be discriminated from loosely bound, exchangeable nucleotides. Nucleotide binding requires membrane energization and is highly specific for medium ADP. In illuminated chloroplasts almost no exogenous AMP and only some ATP are incorporated, most being recovered as tightly bound nucleotides. In light-triggered chloroplasts, however, which are capable of hydrolyzing ATP, a high level of exchangeable nucleotides is found on the membranes. The sum of tightly bound and loosely bound nucleotides originating from medium ADP is about one per CF₁. The ratio between them decreases with increasing proton-motive force. Exchangeable nucleotides most probably represent the ligands involved in the catalytic process, as suggested from substrate specificity and the effect of a competitive inhibitor of photophosphorylation, naphthoyl ADP. This compound in a low concentration range supresses loose binding but not tight binding of medium ADP. Under phosphorylating conditions (presence of ADP, P_i and light), some of the tightly bound nucleotides exist as ATP even in the presence of a hexokinase system. The results are discussed in the context of the regulation of chloroplast ATPase by tight nucleotide binding.     

Inhibition of oxidative phosphorylation by Ca or Sr: A competition with Mg for the formation of adenine nucleotide complexes

Intramitochondrial Sr²⁺, similar to Ca²⁺, inhibits oxidative phosphorylation in intact rat-liver mitochondria. Both Ca²⁺ and Sr²⁺ also inhibit the hydrolytic activity of the ATPase in submitochondrial particles. Half-maximal inhibition of ATPase activity was attained at a concentration of 2.5 mM Ca²⁺ or 5.0 mM Sr²⁺ when the concentration of Mg²⁺ in the medium was 1.0 mM. The inhibition of ATPase activity by both cations was strongly decreased by increasing the Mg²⁺ concentration in the reaction medium. In addition, kinetical data and the determination of the concentration of MgATP, the substrate of the ATPase, in the presence of different concentrations of Ca²⁺ or Sr²⁺ strongly indicate that these cations inhibit ATP hydrolysis by competing with Mg²⁺ for the formation of MgATP. On the basis of a good agreement between these results with submitochondrial particles and the results of titrations of oxidative phosphorylation with carboxyatractyloside or oligomycin in mitochondria loaded with Sr²⁺ it can be concluded that intramitochondrial Ca²⁺ or Sr²⁺ inhibits oxidative phosphorylation in intact mitochondria by decreasing the availability of adenine nucleotides to both the ADP/ATP carrier and the ATP synthase.     

Classification of nucleotide binding sites on mitochondrial F1-ATPase from yeast

Methods are described to classify nucleotide binding sites of the mitochondrial coupling factor F₁ from yeast on the basis of their affinities and stability properties. High affinity sites or states for ATP and related adenine analogs and low affinity sites or states which bind a broad range of different nucleotide triphosphates are found. The results are discussed in terms of a two site, two cycle scheme, where binding of nucleotide at one site facilitates the release of nucleotide at a second site.     

A nucleotide-binding domain of porcine liver annexin VI. Proteolysis of annexin VI labelled with 8-azido-ATP,purification by affinity chromatography on ATP-agarose,and fluorescence studies

Porcine liver annexin VI (AnxVI) of M_r 68.000 is an ATP-binding protein as evidenced by specific and saturable UV-dependent labelling with 8-azido-[-³²P]ATP or the fluorescent analog of ATP, 2-(or 3)-O-(2,4,6-trinitrophenyl)adenosine triphosphate and by binding of AnxVI to ATP-agarose. These characteristics of purified AnxVI were used to identify and characterize preliminary nucleotide-binding domain of the protein. AnxVI labelled with 8-azido-ATP was subjected to limited proteolysis and the proteolytic fragments of AnxVI that retained the covalently-bound nucleotide were separated by means of gel electrophoresis and visualized by exposure of the gel to a phosphor storage screen. It was found that the AnxVI proteolytic fragments of M$$_r 34-36.000 and smaller retained the nucleotide. In a reciprocal experiment, AnxVI was digested with proteolytic enzymes and in an ATP eluate from an ATP-agarose column protein fragments of similar M_r to these labelled with 8-azido-ATP were identified. The extent of AnxVI labelling with 8-azido-ATP and the distribution of proteolytic fragments varied upon calcium concentration. These results lead to the conclusion that there is a nucleotide-binding domain within the AnxVI molecule that is functionally similar to the nucleotide-binding domains of other nucleotide-binding proteins. The nucleotide-binding domain is located close to the tryptophan residue 343 of AnxVI and in close vicinity to the Ca²⁺- and phospholipid-binding sites of the protein. This is confirmed by the observation that the tryptophan fluorescence intensity of AnxVI decreases in the presence of a fluorescence analog of ATP in a calcium-dependent manner, due to the quenching properties of the nucleotide and/or fluorescence energy transfer from AnxVI tryptophan to fluorophore. Both processes were modulated by the presence of phospholipid molecules.     

Functional mitochondria in snake Bothrops alternatus erythrocytes and modulation of HbO2 affinity by mitochondrial ATP

Digitonin was applied to permeabilize the plasma membrane of Bothrops alternatus erythrocytes to study respiration, oxidative phosphorylation and Ca²⁺ transport by mitochondria in situ. These mitochondria oxidized added NAD-linked substrates, succinate and N,N,N, N-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine. Respiration was sensitive to rotenone and cyanide but not to antimycin A. This indicates that Bothrops mitochondria possess the respiratory complexes NADH-ubiquinone, succinate-ubiquinone, and ferrocytochrome c-oxygen oxidoreductases, although the lack of sensitivity to antimycin A raises doubt about the composition of the ubiquinol cytochrome c-reductase complex. An ability to build up and sustain a membrane potential was documented by their capacity to accumulate tetraphenylphosphonium and Ca²⁺ through an uncoupler-sensitive mechanism. Addition of ADP caused a transient decrease in the membrane potential, indicating that this is the predominant driving force for ATP synthesis as in most types of mitochondria. Uncoupling of phosphorylation from the oxidative process increased hemoglobin O₂ affinity, which suggests that ATP production by mitochondria may participate in modulation of O₂ transport by hemoglobin.Abbreviations membrane potential - BAE Bothrops alternatus erythrocytes - DNP 2,4-dinitrophenol - DPG 2,3-diphosphoglycerate - EGTA ethyleneglycol tetra-acetic acid - FCCP carbonylcyanide p-trifloromethoxyphenylhydrazone - TMPD N,N,N,N-tetramethyl-p-phenylenediamine - TPP⁺ tetraphenylphosphonium - TRIS tris-(hydroxymethyl)aminomethane     

Regulation of mitochondrial Ca<Superscript>2+</Superscript> and its effects on energetics and redox balance in normal and failing heart

Ca²⁺ has been well accepted as a signal that coordinates changes in cytosolic workload with mitochondrial energy metabolism in cardiomyocytes. During increased work, Ca²⁺ is accumulated in mitochondria and stimulates ATP production to match energy supply and demand. The kinetics of mitochondrial Ca²⁺ ([Ca²⁺]_m) uptake remains unclear, and we review the debate on this subject in this article. [Ca²⁺]_m has multiple targets in oxidative phosphorylation including the F1/FO ATPase, the adenine nucleotide translocase, and Ca²⁺-sensitive dehydrogenases (CaDH) of the tricarboxylic acid (TCA) cycle. The well established effect of [Ca²⁺]_m is to activate CaDHs of the TCA cycle to increase NADH production. Maintaining NADH level is not only critical to keep a high oxidative phosphorylation rate during increased cardiac work, but is also necessary for the reducing system of the cell to maintain its reactive oxygen species (ROS) —scavenging capacity. Further, we review recent data demonstrating the deleterious effects of elevated Na⁺ in cardiac pathology by blunting [Ca²⁺]_m accumulation.     

Influence of different energy drains on the interrelationship between the rate of respiration,proton-motive force and adenine nucleotide patterns in isolated mitochondria

The respiration of rat liver mitochondria was stimulated by three different ways of energy drain: (a) partial uncoupling (equivalent to direct collapse of the proton-motive force), (b) intramitochondrial utilization of ATP for citrulline synthesis, and (c) extramitochondrial utilization of ATP for glucose phosphorylation. At identical rates of respiration, the intramitochondrial ATP: ADP ratios were the same in all three systems. Furthermore, the proton-motive force was the same in partially uncoupled mitochondria and in the presence of hexokinase plus glucose up to a respiration rate amounting to about 60% of that of the fully active state. However, external ATP: ADP ratios were considerably different in various systems at comparable rates of oxygen uptake, being the lowest under conditions when ATP was being utilized externally. On this basis, it is concluded that the respiratory rate is controlled directly by the proton-motive force and the mitochondrial ATP-synthesizing system operates under near-equilibrium conditions with respect to the membrane energy state parameters. However, a disequilibrium exists at the step of the transport of ATP from mitochondria to the external (cytoplasmic) compartment.     

The generation of transplasmic Drosophila simulans by cytoplasmic injection: effects of segregation and selection on the perpetuation of mitochondrial DNA heteroplasmy

Summary Experimental transplasmic Drosophila simulans were obtained through cytoplasm microinjection between eggs carrying different mitochondrial genomes. These genomes (siII and siIII) show a 1.5% difference in their sequences. They produced a large number of heteroplasmic flies in their F₁ progeny and several flies were still heteroplasmic at the eighth generation. The distribution of frequencies of mitochondrial genotypes in the offspring of heteroplasmic females suggests that the stochastic processes involved in the evolution of experimental heteroplasmy of multiple nucleotide sites are very similar to those previously described for spontaneous length heteroplasmy. In addition, the siII genome has a noticeable advantage over the siIII genome in both directions of injection. This advantage is estimated at 58% per fly generation and 5% per cell generation.