The technologies for genetic transformation of cereals

In this review, the analysis of the most widely used technologies for genetic transformation of cereals is presented. The required conditions for transformation, regeneration, and testing of cereal crops are discussed, and a new Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation approach is presented. This review can be useful for genetic engineers, biotechnologists, and other specialists involved in the production or studies of transgenic plants.     

Transformation of rice mediated by Agrobacterium tumefaciens

Agrobacterium tumefaciens has been routinely utilized in gene transfer to dicotyledonous plants, but monocotyledonous plants including important cereals were thought to be recalcitrant to this technology as they were outside the host range of crown gall. Various challenges to infect monocotyledons including rice with Agrobacterium had been made in many laboratories, but the results were not conclusive until recently. Efficient transformation protocols mediated by Agrobacterium were reported for rice in 1994 and 1996. A key point in the protocols was the fact that tissues consisting of actively dividing, embryonic cells, such as immature embryos and calli induced from scutella, were co-cultivated with Agrobacterium in the presence of acetosyringonc, which is a potent inducer of the virulence genes. It is now clear that Agrobacterium is capable of transferring DNA to monocotyledons if tissues containing competent cells are infected. The studies of transformation of rice suggested that numerous factors including genotype of plants, types and ages of tissues inoculated, kind of vectors, strains of Agrobacterium, selection marker genes and selective agents, and various conditions of tissue culture, are of critical importance. Advantages of the Agrobacterium-mediated transformation in rice, like on dicotyledons, include the transfer of pieces of DNA with defined ends with minimal rearrangements, the transfer of relatively large segments of DNA, the integration of small numbers of copies of genes into plant chromosomes, and high quality and fertility of transgenic plants. Delivery of foreign DNA to rice plants via A. tumefaciens is a routine technique in a growing number of laboratories. This technique will allow the genetic improvement of diverse varieties of rice, as well as studies of many aspects of the molecular biology of rice.     

农杆菌介导玉米遗传转化体系的研究进展

玉米(Zea maysL.)是世界上三大主要粮食作物之一,至今其遗传转化仍比较困难,目前报道有多种成功的方法,其中农杆菌(Agrobactierium tumefaciens)介导法是当前玉米遗传转化的主要方法。本文综述了农杆菌介导的玉米遗传转化研究的发展历史、存在问题和影响因素等,并对未来发展趋势进行展望。     

农杆菌介导单子叶植物基因转化研究进展

农杆菌介导基因转化系统是双子叶植物基因转化的普通而有效的手段, 其优点倍受重视,近年来又广泛用于曾被认为不在农杆菌宿主范围之内的单子叶植物的基因转化研究,并在很多重要粮食作物上获得成功,例如水稻、玉米、大麦、小麦等。本文就农杆菌转化的优点,转化机理以及对单子叶植物转化的研究进展作一概述     

Genetic transformation of wheat: progress during the 1990s into the Millennium

Wheat transformation technology has progressed rapidly during the past decade. Initially, procedures developed for protoplast isolation and culture, electroporation- and polyethylene glycol (PEG)-induced DNA transfer enabled foreign genes to be introduced into wheat cells. The development of biolistic (microprojectile) bombardment procedures led to a more efficient approach for direct gene transfer. More recently, Agrobacterium-mediated gene delivery procedures, initially developed for the transformation of rice, have also been used to generate transgenic wheat plants. This review summarises the considerable progress in wheat transformation achieved during the last decade. An increase in food production is essential in order to sustain the increasing world population. This could be achieved by the development of higher yielding varieties with improved nutritional quality and tolerance to biotic and abiotic stresses. Although conventional breeding will continue to play a major role in increasing crop yield, laboratory-based techniques, such as genetic transformation to introduce novel genes into crop plants, will be essential in complementing existing breeding technologies. A decade ago, cereals were considered recalcitrant to transformation. Since then, a significant research effort has been focused on cereals because of their agronomic status, leading to improved genetic transformation procedures (Bommineni and Jauhar 1997). Initially, the genetic transformation of cereals relied on the introduction of DNA into protoplasts and the subsequent production of callus from which fertile plants were regenerated. More recently, major advances have been accomplished in the regeneration of fertile plants from a range of source tissues, providing an essential foundation for the generation of transgenic plants. This review summarises procedures, vectors and target tissues used for transformation, high-lights the limitations of current approaches and discusses future trends. The citation of references is limited, where possible, to the most relevant or recent reports.     

基因枪转化技术及其在禾谷类作物遗传转化中的应用

基因枪转化法广泛用于禾谷类作物的遗传转化研究,是目前禾谷类作物遗传转化的有效方法。简要介绍了基困枪转化法的产生与发展、转化的特点以及影响转化频率的主要因素;系统地概述了基因枪法在禾谷类作物遗传转化的应用。     

Advances in Transgenic Rice Biotechnology

Rice is the most amenable crop plant for genetic manipulation amongst monocots due to its small genome size, enriched genetic map, availability of entire genome sequence, and relative ease of transformation. Improvement in agronomic traits of rice is bound to affect a sizeable population since it is a primary source of sustenance. Recent advances like use of ‘clean gene’ technology or matrix attachment regions would help improve rice transformation. Function of several novel genes and their promoters has been analyzed in transgenic rice. Significant progress has been made in introducing traits like herbicide, biotic stress and abiotic stress tolerance. Attempts also have been made to enhance nutritional characteristics of the grain and yield. Identification of genes controlling growth and development can be used to modify plant architecture and heading period. Transgenic rice can serve as a biofactory for the production of molecules of pharmaceutical and industrial utility. The drive to apply transgenic rice for public good as well as commercial gains has fueled research to an all time high. Successful field trials and biosafety of transgenic rice have been reported. This would act as a catalyst for greater acceptance of genetically modified food crops. The lessons learnt from rice can be extended to other cereals thereby opening new opportunities and possibilities.     

根癌农杆菌转化禾谷类作物及影响其转化的因素

综述了根癌农杆菌转化禾谷类作物的研究现状,根癌农杆菌与禾谷类作物间的相互作用研究,根癌农杆菌成功转化禾谷类的例子;影响根癌农杆菌转化成功的因素,如菌株类型,感受态细胞的选择,Vir基因的活化,选择合适的转化途径等。这些将为利用根癌农杆菌介导的方法,将外源基因导入禾谷类作物提供有益的帮助。     

提高农杆菌转化水稻频率的研究

以16种重要的籼稻和粳稻栽培品种为材料,研究了影响农杆菌转化水稻频率的有关因素,结果表明,CC培养基是绝大多数水稻全国组织的最适诱导与继代培养基;添加2．5－5mg/L ABA可以有效地改善水稻愈伤组织的质量,籼稻愈伤组织所需的筛选剂浓度低于粳稻愈伤组织所需的浓度,根癌农杆菌EHA105菌株对水稻的转化效果优于LBA4404和AGL1菌株的效果,头孢霉素对农杆菌的抑制效果优于羧苄青霉素的效果,共培养后进行适当的干燥处理既可增强脱菌效果,又可提高转化频率,应用我们所优化的农杆菌转化技术体系,获得了10个品种的水稻转基因植株。     

Factors influencing <Emphasis Type="Italic">Agrobacterium</Emphasis>-mediated transformation of monocotyledonous species

Summary Since the success of Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of rice in the early 1990s, significant advances in Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of monocotyledonous plant species have been achieved. Transgenic plants obtained via Agrobacterium-mediated transformation have been regenerated in more than a dozen monocotyledonous species, ranging from the most important cereal crops to ornamental plant species. Efficient transformation protocols for agronomically important cereal crops such as rice, wheat, maize, barley, and sorghum have been developed and transformation for some of these species has become routine. Many factors influencing Agrobacterium-mediated transformation of monocotyledonous plants have been investigated and elucidated. These factors include plant genotype, explant type, Agrobacterium strain, and binary vector. In addition, a wide variety of inoculation and co-culture conditions have been shown to be important for the transformation of monocots. For example, antinecrotic treatments using antioxidants and bactericides, osmotic treatments, desiccation of explants before or after Agrobacterium infection, and inoculation and co-culture medium compositions have influenced the ability to recover transgenic monocols. The plant selectable markers used and the promoters driving these marker genes have also been recognized as important factors influencing stable transformation frequency. Extension of transformation protocols to elite genotypes and to more readily available explants in agronomically important crop species will be the challenge of the future. Further evaluation of genes stimulating plant cell division or T-DNA integration, and genes increasing competency of plant cells to Agrobacterium, may increase transformation efficiency in various systems. Understanding mechanisms by which treatments such as desiccation and antioxidants impact T-DNA delivery and stable transformation will facilitate development of efficient transformation systems.     

Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of recalcitrant crops

The most widely used technique for the introduction of new genetic information into plant cells is based on the natural gene transfer capacity ofAgrobacterium tumefaciens. Currently, this technique is routinely applicable in just a few model species, like tobacco and petunia. Thus far, the numerous efforts to apply the technique to crop species have had limited success. In this review, an attempt is made to survey all the research experience onAgrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation of recalcitrant crops and to highlight the problems generally encountered. The main difficulty appears to be directing the gene transfer towards those plant cells that are amenable to regeneration. The various ways to reduce stress during the transformation and regeneration process are often beneficial. The influence of the developmental stage of the plant material and the host range of theAgrobacterium strain depends largely on the plant species used, which hampers the formulation of common procedures. However, some general guidelines for the development of a transformation protocol are discussed.     

Reasons for lower transformation efficiency in indica rice using Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation: lessons from transformation assays and genome-wide expression profiling

Agrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated genetic transformation has been routinely used in rice for more than a decade. However, the transformation efficiency of the indica rice variety is still unsatisfactory and much lower than that of japonica cultivars. Further improvement on the transformation efficiency lies in the genetic manipulation of the plant itself, which requires a better understanding of the underlying process accounting for the susceptibility of plant cells to Agrobacterium infection as well as the identification of plant genes involved in the transformation process. In this study, transient and stable transformation assays using different japonica and indica cultivars showed that the lower transformation efficiency in indica rice was mainly due to the low efficiency in T-DNA integration into the plant genome. Analyses of the global gene expression patterns across the transformation process in different varieties revealed major differences in the expression of genes responding to Agrobacterium within the first 6 h after infection and more differentially expressed genes were observed in the indica cultivar Zhenshan 97 (ZS), with a number of genes repressed early during infection. Microarray analysis revealed an important effect of plant defense response on Agrobacterium-mediated transformation. It has been shown that some genes which may be necessary for the transformation process were down-regulated in the indica cultivar ZS. This dataset provided a versatile resource for plant genomic research to understand the regulatory network of transformation process, and showed great promise for improving indica rice transformation using genetic manipulation of the rice genome.     

Transformation ofBrassica oleracea L.: a critical review

Brassica oleracea is a highly polymorphic species encompassing a wide range of important vegetable and fodder crops. Gene transfer into cultivated forms of this species requires reproducible and efficient methods for genetic transformation and plant regeneration. In this review, we have collated the research experience on transformation ofB. oleracea to highlight the problems encountered. Most research effort has been directed at developingAgrobacterium-mediated transformation methods with relatively little emphasis to date on direct gene transfer techniques. Common procedures for the transformation ofB. oleracea have not emerged, due to the inherent variability between and amongst genotypes. Future progress would be facilitated by the use of genetically fixed material, such as double-haploid or inbred lines, to reduce variation of response within genotypes and would avoid the need for cultivar-specific transformation protocols if responsive lines amenable to crossing with cultivated forms could be identified. The principal difficulties relate to combining efficient plant regeneration with gene transfer. Methods that enhance bacterial virulence and increase the proportion of cells susceptible to transformation and competent for regeneration are discussed. Inefficient selection is a major cause of poor transformation frequencies inB. oleracea and has resulted in the regeneration of chimeric plants uponAgrobacterium tumefaciens-mediated transformation. Promising results have been obtained withAgrobacterium rhizogenes-mediated transformation but the impact of therol genes on flowering of primary transformants has not yet been fully assessed. Strategies to reduce the deleterious effects of therol genes on flowering are discussed. Few agronomically useful characters have been introduced, the majority of research having been confined to the introduction of marker and reporter genes; possible candidate genes are discussed.     

Cross-genome map based dissection of a nitrogen use efficiency ortho-metaQTL in bread wheat unravels concerted cereal genome evolution

Monitoring nitrogen use efficiency (NUE) in plants is becoming essential to maintain yield while reducing fertilizer usage. Optimized NUE application in major crops is essential for long-term sustainability of agriculture production. Here, we report the precise identification of 11 major chromosomal regions controlling NUE in wheat that co-localise with key developmental genes such as Ppd (photoperiod sensitivity), Vrn (vernalization requirement), Rht (reduced height) and can be considered as robust markers from a molecular breeding perspective. Physical mapping, sequencing, annotation and candidate gene validation of an NUE metaQTL on wheat chromosome 3B allowed us to propose that a glutamate synthase (GoGAT) gene that is conserved structurally and functionally at orthologous positions in rice, sorghum and maize genomes may contribute to NUE in wheat and other cereals. We propose an evolutionary model for the NUE locus in cereals from a common ancestral region, involving species specific shuffling events such as gene deletion, inversion, transposition and the invasion of repetitive elements.     

Enrichment of cereal protein lysine content by altered tRNA(lys) coding during protein synthesis

The world's major crops are deficient in lysine and several other amino acids essential for human and animal nutrition. Increasing the content of these amino acids in cereals, our major source of dietary energy, can help feed a global population whose reliance upon dietary protein is growing faster than crop yields. Here we document the heritable expression in rice, the world's major cereal crop, of tRNA(lys) species that introduce lysine at alternative codons during protein synthesis, resulting in a significant enrichment of the lysine content of proteins in rice seeds without changing the types or quantities of the seed storage proteins.     

Recent advances in rice biotechnology--towards genetically superior transgenic rice

Rice biotechnology has made rapid advances since the first transgenic rice plants were produced 15 years ago. Over the past decade, this progress has resulted in the development of high frequency, routine and reproducible genetic transformation protocols for rice. This technology has been applied to produce rice plants that withstand several abiotic stresses, as well as to gain tolerance against various pests and diseases. In addition, quality improving and increased nutritional value traits have also been introduced into rice. Most of these gains were not possible through conventional breeding technologies. Transgenic rice system has been used to understand the process of transformation itself, the integration pattern of transgene as well as to modulate gene expression. Field trials of transgenic rice, especially insect-resistant rice, have recently been performed and several other studies that are prerequisite for safe release of transgenic crops have been initiated. New molecular improvisations such as inducible expression of transgene and selectable marker-free technology will help in producing superior transgenic product. It is also a step towards alleviating public concerns relating to issues of transgenic technology and to gain regulatory approval. Knowledge gained from rice can also be applied to improve other cereals. The completion of the rice genome sequencing together with a rich collection of full-length cDNA resources has opened up a plethora of opportunities, paving the way to integrate data from the large-scale projects to solve specific biological problems.     

Large‐scale GWAS in sorghum reveals common genetic control of grain size among cereals

Grain size is a key yield component of cereal crops and a major quality attribute. It is determined by a genotype’s genetic potential and its capacity to fill the grains. This study aims to dissect the genetic architecture of grain size in sorghum. An integrated genome‐wide association study (GWAS) was conducted using a diversity panel (n = 837) and a BC‐NAM population (n = 1421). To isolate genetic effects associated with genetic potential of grain size, rather than the genotype’s capacity to fill the grains, a treatment of removing half of the panicle was imposed during flowering. Extensive and highly heritable variation in grain size was observed in both populations in 5 field trials, and 81 grain size QTL were identified in subsequent GWAS. These QTL were enriched for orthologues of known grain size genes in rice and maize, and had significant overlap with SNPs associated with grain size in rice and maize, supporting common genetic control of this trait among cereals. Grain size genes with opposite effect on grain number were less likely to overlap with the grain size QTL from this study, indicating the treatment facilitated identification of genetic regions related to the genetic potential of grain size. These results enhance understanding of the genetic architecture of grain size in cereal, and pave the way for exploration of underlying molecular mechanisms and manipulation of this trait in breeding practices.     

麦类作物遗传转化

麦类作物包括小麦(Triticum aestivum L.)、硬粒小麦(Triticum turgidum con v.durum Dest.e.m)、大麦(Hordeum vulgare L.)、黑麦(Secale cereal L.)、燕麦(Avena sativa L.)及小大麦(×Tritordeum Ascherson et Graebuer.).自从基因枪被发明以来,科学家们已经利用来自麦类作物的幼胚、 盾片、成熟种子胚、花粉粒、花药、幼穗、叶基组织、发芽种子幼苗的顶端分生组织及其愈伤组织或培养物作为外植体,通过基因枪、农杆菌介导、 PEG法、电激法、微注射法、硅化纤维素介导、幼穗注射法等技术先后将一些选择标记基因、报告基因和有用的目的基因如抗真菌、抗虫、 籽粒品质、抗干旱基因等转化到麦类作物中.转基因植物表现为抗性增强或籽粒的加工品质提高和营养成份增加.被转化的基因通常以单位点多拷贝的形式随机整合到受体细胞的基因组中,并以孟德尔规律遗传.整合位点一般分布在染色体的近端粒区域,整合的拷贝数大多为5～10个拷贝,最高可达到50个拷贝.在转化过程中,被转化的质粒上的片段包括选择标记基因、目标基因、甚至质粒的抗生素基因和其他无关序列,随机地连接并形成多个分子量大小不等,组成成分不同的分子簇,或首先由其中一个分子簇整合到植物基因组中,这会导致在整合位点附近产生"热点",易于其他分子簇在此处整合,从而完成两期整合;或被转化的质粒上的选择标记基因、目标基因、质粒的抗生素基因和其他无关序列、植物基因组DNA等片段共同形成各种不同类型的分子簇,当植物细胞染色体复制时,在复制叉处整合到植物基因组中.转基因可以在各种水平上表达,也会时常发生基因沉默,这会导致转基因植物DNA水平上表达但在蛋白质水平上不表达,后代偏向分离,沉默的转基因重新表达.转基因的位置效应、甲基化和启动子都会诱发转基因沉默.在麦类作物中,35S启动子易于导致转基因沉默,应尽量减少使用.转基因还导致被转化麦类作物在农艺性状和细胞学上的变异.目前,麦类作物遗传转化已经成为一种常规的技术,转基因麦类作物正开始进入商业应用阶段.相信多种转化新技术的应用和发展将会培育出高产、稳产、优质、低投入的各类品种和种质.     

麦类作物遗传转化(英)

麦类作物包括小麦 (TriticumaestivumL .)、硬粒小麦 (Triticumturgidumconv .durumDest.e.m)、大麦 (HordeumvulgareL .)、黑麦 (SecalecerealL .)、燕麦 (AvenasativaL .)及小大麦 (×TritordeumAschersonetGraebuer.)。自从基因枪被发明以来 ,科学家们已经利用来自麦类作物的幼胚、盾片、成熟种子胚、花粉粒、花药、幼穗、叶基组织、发芽种子幼苗的顶端分生组织及其愈伤组织或培养物作为外植体 ,通过基因枪、农杆菌介导、PEG法、电激法、微注射法、硅化纤维素介导、幼穗注射法等技术先后将一些选择标记基因、报告基因和有用的目的基因如抗真菌、抗虫、籽粒品质、抗干旱基因等转化到麦类作物中。转基因植物表现为抗性增强或籽粒的加工品质提高和营养成份增加。被转化的基因通常以单位点多拷贝的形式随机整合到受体细胞的基因组中 ,并以孟德尔规律遗传。整合位点一般分布在染色体的近端粒区域 ,整合的拷贝数大多为 5～ 10个拷贝 ,最高可达到 5 0个拷贝。在转化过程中 ,被转化的质粒上的片段包括选择标记基因、目标基因、甚至质粒的抗生素基因和其他无关序列 ,随机地连接并形成多个分子量大小不等 ,组成成分不同的分子簇 ,或首先由其中一个分子簇整合到植物基因组中 ,这会导致在整合位点附近产生“热点