A critique of the “ultra‐high risk” and “transition” paradigm

The transdiagnostic expression of psychotic experiences in common mental disorder (anxiety/depression/substance use disorder) is associated with a poorer prognosis, and a small minority of people may indeed develop a clinical picture that meets criteria for schizophrenia. However, it appears neither useful nor valid to observe early states of multidimensional psychopathology in young people through the “schizo”‐prism, and apply misleadingly simple, unnecessary and inefficient binary concepts of “risk” and “transition”. A review of the “ultra‐high risk” (UHR) or “clinical high risk” (CHR) literature indicates that UHR/CHR samples are highly heterogeneous and represent individuals diagnosed with common mental disorder (anxiety/depression/substance use disorder) and a degree of psychotic experiences. Epidemiological research has shown that psychotic experiences are a (possibly non‐causal) marker of the severity of multidimensional psychopathology, driving poor outcome, yet notions of “risk” and “transition” in UHR/CHR research are restrictively defined on the basis of positive psychotic phenomena alone, ignoring how baseline differences in multidimensional psychopathology may differentially impact course and outcome. The concepts of “risk” and “transition” in UHR/CHR research are measured on the same dimensional scale, yet are used to produce artificial diagnostic shifts. In fact, “transition” in UHR/CHR research occurs mainly as a function of variable sample enrichment strategies rather than the UHR/CHR “criteria” themselves. Furthermore, transition rates in UHR/CHR research are inflated as they do not exclude false positives associated with the natural fluctuation of dimensional expression of psychosis. Biological associations with “transition” thus likely represent false positive findings, as was the initial claim of strong effects of omega‐3 polyunsatured fatty acids in UHR samples. A large body of UHR/CHR intervention research has focused on the questionable outcome of “transition”, which shows lack of correlation with functional outcome. It may be more productive to consider the full range of person‐specific psychopathology in all young individuals who seek help for mental health problems, instead of “policing” youngsters for the transdiagnostic dimension of psychosis. Instead of the relatively inefficient medical high‐risk approach, a public health perspective, focusing on improved access to a low‐stigma, high‐hope, small scale and youth‐specific environment with acceptable language and interventions may represent a more useful and efficient strategy.     

Differential Probability of “Coproduction” in Two Species of Macaque (Macaca tonkeana,M. mulatta)

This study aimed to assess the conditions under which monkeys might produce common effects in an instrumental task. One group of Tonkean macaques (Macaca tonkeana) and two groups of rhesus macaques (M. mulatta) were given series of tests in which food incentives were placed under stones of various weights. In the Tonkean group, the simultaneous action of two subjects in moving the same stone was a relatively frequently occurring event: coaction was more effective than individual action for moving heavy stones; however, there were no signs of coordination among partners and no improvement through learning. In rhesus groups, instances of coaction were extremely rare, and rates of agonistic interactions were higher than in the Tonkean group. It is suggested that “coproduction” represented an emergent phenomenon resulting from social interactions and, as such, was dependent on the level of interindividual tolerance.     

“Active” and “passive” ecological restoration strategies in meta‐analysis

One of the means of creating a more robust methodology for ecological restoration involves reducing the gap between ecological theory and restoration practices. A common strategy to do so is using meta‐analysis to understand key drivers of restoration outcomes. “Active” and “passive” is a dichotomy often used to separate restoration strategies in such meta‐analyses. We investigate previously raised concerns about selection bias and subjective categorization of strategies. We promote a paired experimental design in future empirical research and propose the use of three categories of restoration strategy in lieu of “passive” and “active” to alleviate inconsistency in definitions and categorization.     

Dietary Restraint and Control Over “Wanting” Following Consumption of “Forbidden” Food

Eating behavior can be influenced by the rewarding value of food, i.e., “liking” and “wanting.” The objective of this study was to assess in normal‐weight dietary restrained (NR) vs. unrestrained (NU) eaters how rewarding value of food is affected by satiety, and by eating a nonhealthy perceived, dessert‐specific food vs. a healthy perceived, neutral food (chocolate mousse vs. cottage cheese). Subjects (24NR age = 25.0 ± 8.2 years, BMI = 22.3 ± 2.1 kg/m²; 26NU age = 24.8 ± 8.0 years, BMI = 22.1 ± 1.7 kg/m²) came to the university twice, fasted (randomized crossover design). Per test‐session “liking” and “wanting” for 72 items divided in six categories (bread, filling, drinks, dessert, sweets, stationery (placebo)) was measured, before and after consumption of chocolate mousse/cottage cheese, matched for energy content (5.6 kJ/g) and individual daily energy requirements (10%). Chocolate mousse was liked more than cottage cheese (P < 0.05). After consumption of chocolate mousse or cottage cheese, appetite and “liking” vs. placebo were decreased in NR and NU (P < 0.03), whereas “wanting” was only decreased in NR vs. NU (P ≤ 0.01). In NR vs. NU “wanting” was specifically decreased after chocolate mousse vs. cottage cheese; this decrease concerned especially “wanting” for bread and filling (P < 0.05). To conclude, despite similar decreases in appetite and “liking” after a meal in NR and NU, NR decrease “wanting” in contrast to NU. NR decrease “wanting” specifically for a nonhealthy perceived, “delicious,” dessert‐specific food vs. a nutritional identical, yet healthy perceived, slightly less “delicious,” “neutral” food. A healthy perceived food may thus impose greater risk for control of energy intake in NR.     

Distribution of the Character States “Early Sympetaly” and “Late Sympetaly” Within the “Sympetalae Tetracyclicae” and Presumably Allied Groups*

Within the Asteridae (“Sympetalae Tetracyclicae”) two main developmental patterns can be distinguished as regards the formation of corolla tubes, namely “early” and “late sympetaly”. Since the character “ontogeny of sympetaly”, after intensive studies, proved to be valuable for systematic considerations, we now recognize two blocks of orders within the Asteridae (and related groups): the Asteridae A-block and the Asteridae B-block (Figs. 82 and 83). By and large this bipartition referring mainly to the corolla tube development corresponds well with major lineages indentified by recent molecular data (see, e.g., Chase et al., 1993). Asteridae A-block is characterized predominantely by “late sympetaly” the “early sympetaly” in Rubiales and Oleales can be interpreted as derived within this block or can be linked with that in Asteridae B-block. Asteridae B-block is uniform throughout in its “early sympetaly”. In this block it is a primitive character, as judged from its occasional occurrence in the choripetalous Cornales and Apiales (Apiaceae, Araliaceae, Pittosporaceae), which can be regarded as ancestral for block B.     

“Laughter” and “Smile” in Barbary Macaques (Macaca sylvanus)

In an observational study on semi-free Barbary macaques it was investigated whether the phylogenetic roots of human laughter and smile can be traced back to the genus Macaca. On the basis of morphological similarity a ‘relaxed open-mouth display’ as the phylogenetic precursor of the laughter, and a ‘silent bared-teeth display’ as the possible ancestor of the smile can be distinguished in the repertory of the Barbary macaque. Behavioural sequences from focal animal protocols were analyzed in order to establish message and meaning of both displays. Relaxed open-mouth display is regularly observed in the play interactions of juveniles. It is associated with partner-directed behaviour, it is frequently answered by a relaxed open-mouth display of the receiver, and accompanied by a special vocalization. Although up to 50% of the juvenile's play partners were higher ranking than themselves voluntary participation was the rule. Most characteristically, the behaviour patterns shown by both play partners are highly symmetrical and synchronized. Silent bared-teeth display is typically accompanied by evasive or submissive body movements, and occurs primarily in dyadic interactions, mainly by the lower ranking individual. It is not an unidirectional sign of a linear dominance hierarchy, though. Silent bared-teeth display is a frequent answer to aggressive behaviour shown by the receiver. After its performance, an increase of body contact between sender and receiver was observed. Behavioural sequences of senders and receivers are complementary, but lose their asymmetry after occurrence of the display. It is concluded that these results further support Van Hooff 's (1972) view that human laughter and smile have different phylogenetic roots: while silent bared-teeth display is a signal of submission and appeasement, relaxed open-mouth display is rightly called the ‘play face’, and is an expression of fun.     

Tumor microenvironment as the “regulator” and “target” for gene therapy

In this review, we focus on strategies for designing functional nano gene carriers, as well as choosing therapeutic genes targeting the tumor microenvironment. Gene mutations have a great impact on the occurrence of cancer. Thus, gene therapy plays a major role in cancer therapy and has the potential to cure cancer. Well‐designed gene therapy largely relies on effective gene carriers, which can be divided into viral carriers and non‐viral carriers. A gene carrier delivers functional genes to their intracellular target and avoids nucleic acids being degraded by nucleases in the serum. Most conventional cancer gene therapies only target cancer cells and do not appear to be sufficintly efficient to pass clinical trials. Accumulating evidence has shown that extending the therapeutic strategies to the tumor microenvironment, rather than the tumor cell itself, can allow more options for achieving robust anti‐cancer efficiency. In addition, unusual features between tumor microenvironment and normal tissues, such as a lower pH, higher glutathione and reactive oxygen species concentrations, and overexpression of some enzymes, facilitate the design of smart stimuli‐responsive gene carriers regulated by the tumor microenvironment. These carriers interact with nucleic acids and then form stable nanoparticles under physiological conditions. By regulation of the tumor microenvironment, stimuli‐responsive gene carriers are able to change their properties and achieve high gene delivery efficiency. Considering the tumor microenvironment as the “regulator” and “target” when designing gene carriers and choosing therapeutic genes shows significant benefit with respect to improving the accuracy and efficiency of cancer gene therapy.     

Characterization of global molecular shape transitions between “open” and “closed” protein conformations

Induced-fit configurational transitions in proteins can take many forms. In cases, we find small “closures” of a loop onto the substrate. In other cases, the structural changes triggered by a ligand involve large rearrangements that affect entire domains. The nature of these transitions is normally assessed by a visual analysis or in terms of simple local geometrical parameters, such as interresidue distances, backbone dihedral angles, and relative displacements between domains. This approach is limited and rather undiscriminating. In this work, we apply recently introduced ideas from macromolecular shape analysis to characterize the global shape changes accompanying “open closed” transitions in proteins. Here, we monitor two distinct properties simultaneously: molecular size and self-entanglements. The method is applied to some proteins exhibiting pairs of structurally different conformations (adenylate kinase, hexokinase, citrate synthase, alcohol dehydrogenase, triosephosphate isomerase, thioredoxin, and aspartate amino-transferase). The conformational change associated with these proteins is classified according to an order parameter that considers various molecular shape features. The results allow one to recognize, in a nonvisual fashion, the likely occurrence of local or global structural rearrangements. In addition, the technique provides an insight into folding features that may remain invariant during the configurational transitions. © 1996 John Wiley & Sons, Inc.     

Restoring Intertidal Boulder‐Fields as Habitat for “Specialist” and “Generalist” Animals

Restoration is important in urban areas where habitat destruction is greatest. It incorporates many levels of intervention, with creation of new habitat the most extreme form. Most research on habitat creation has been terrestrial, or in marine habitats dominated by large structuring biota, such as mangroves. Intertidal boulder‐fields in urban areas are vulnerable to disturbances and habitat loss, which adversely affect numerous habitat specialists. This study describes experiments in which quarried stones were used to create new habitat outside natural boulder‐fields as a practical approach to restoring habitat. Colonization by specialist fauna and by common algae and invertebrates was measured for a year after deployment. Despite sessile assemblages on new boulders differing from those on natural boulders, common and rare animals rapidly colonized the new habitat. There was no clear succession, but colonization was variable and patchy at all scales examined, although diversities and abundances of some species in this novel habitat matched those of natural boulders within a few months. Rare and common animals generally colonized the new habitat as adults moving in from surrounding areas. Creating new boulder‐fields using quarried rocks is a successful approach to restoration and conservation of fauna where natural boulder‐fields are threatened.     

“How” and “what” matters: Sampling method affects biodiversity estimates of reef fishes

Understanding changes in biodiversity requires the implementation of monitoring programs encompassing different dimensions of biodiversity through varying sampling techniques. In this work, fish assemblages associated with the “outer” and “inner” sides of four marinas, two at the Canary Islands and two at southern Portugal, were investigated using three complementary sampling techniques: underwater visual censuses (UVCs), baited cameras (BCs), and fish traps (FTs). We firstly investigated the complementarity of these sampling methods to describe species composition. Then, we investigated differences in taxonomic (TD), phylogenetic (PD) and functional diversity (FD) between sides of the marinas according to each sampling method. Finally, we explored the applicability/reproducibility of each sampling technique to characterize fish assemblages according to these metrics of diversity. UVCs and BCs provided complementary information, in terms of the number and abundances of species, while FTs sampled a particular assemblage. Patterns of TD, PD, and FD between sides of the marinas varied depending on the sampling method. UVC was the most cost‐efficient technique, in terms of personnel hours, and it is recommended for local studies. However, for large‐scale studies, BCs are recommended, as it covers greater spatio‐temporal scales by a lower cost. Our study highlights the need to implement complementary sampling techniques to monitor ecological change, at various dimensions of biodiversity. The results presented here will be useful for optimizing future monitoring programs.