Do different dispersal capacities influence the biogeography of the western Palearctic dragonflies (Odonata)?

The biogeography of the western Palearctic has been intensively studied for more than a century. Recent advances in genetics have allowed the testing of old theories based on distribution patterns, although these analyses are obviously restricted to a reduced number of specific genetic data sets. On the other hand, an increased knowledge on the distributions of species and advances in computer capacities have allowed more detailed biogeographical analyses based on species presence/absence. In the present study, we selected the Odonata as the study group. For all 162 species native to the western Palearctic, we compiled their respective presence or absence in 97 predefined biogeographical regions. Using cluster analyses and principal component analyses, both based on Jaccard similarity coefficients, we analysed the differentiation among these regions and species. In subsequent analyses, the data set was reduced to the Zygoptera, Anisoptera, and the western Palearctic endemics. All analyses consistently showed different faunal regions and faunal elements. In particular, the (1) western and (2) eastern Mediterranean; (3) Central and (4) Northern Europe; and (5) the British Isles were invariably found in all cases. Although the two major Mediterranean regions were characterized by several endemic faunal elements, Northern Europe and the British Isles lacked such elements, but were characterized by faunal compositions strongly deviating from the rest of the western Palearctic region. Moderate differences between Zygoptera and Anisoptera existed, with the latter more clearly redrawing the Mediterranean refuge areas, whereas the former reflected to a greater extent the postglacial expansion patterns from these regions. In general, our findings underline the old biogeographical theories, but refine especially our understanding of the Atlanto‐ and Ponto‐Mediterranean region. Central Europe, comprising the area with the highest species numbers of our whole study region, unravels as a crossroad of postglacial immigrations, but might also represent a region of in situ glacial survival. © 2010 The Linnean Society of London, Biological Journal of the Linnean Society, 2010, 99 , 177–195.     

A hierarchical classification of freshwater mussel diversity in North America

Aim North America harbours the most diverse freshwater mussel fauna on Earth. This fauna has high endemism at the continental scale and within individual river systems. Previous faunal classifications for North America were based on intuitive, subjective assessments of species distributions, primarily the occurrence of endemic species, and do not portray continent‐wide patterns of faunal similarity. The aim of this study is to provide an analytical portrayal of patterns of mussel diversity in a hierarchical framework that informs the biogeographical history of the fauna. Location The study considered the mussel fauna of North America from the Rio Grande system northwards. Methods Patterns of mussel faunal similarity in 126 river systems or lake watersheds across North America were examined. The dataset was developed from the literature and consisted of recent species presence/absence (282 species) in each drainage unit; subspecies were not included. Patterns of mussel diversity were examined with hierarchical cluster analysis, based on a pairwise distance matrix between all drainage units. Results Cluster analysis revealed 17 faunal provinces within four major faunal regions: Mississippian, Atlantic, Eastern Gulf and Pacific. The Mississippian Region dominates the North American fauna with 11 provinces, including five not recognized by previous classifications: Mississippi Embayment, Upper Mississippi, Great Plains, Ohioan and Pontchartrain–Pearl–Pascagoula. Within the Eastern Gulf Region (containing three provinces), the Escambia–Choctawhatchee Province is distinctive from the Apalachicolan Province, under which it was previously subsumed. Patterns of diversity in the Atlantic Region (two provinces) and Pacific Region (one province) were similar to previous classifications. Main conclusions The classification proposed in this study largely corroborates earlier schemes based on the occurrence of endemic species but identifies additional heterogeneity that reflects unique assemblages of widely distributed species. The study proposes a hierarchical structure that illustrates relationships among these provinces. Although some provinces in the Mississippian Region have high endemism, all Mississippian provinces share a group of widely distributed species. The Atlantic and Eastern Gulf regions have distinctive, endemic faunas suggesting limited past connectivity with the Mississippian Region. The Pacific Region is the most distinct fauna in North America and bears close affinity to the Eurasian mussel fauna.     

Modeling Species Distributions from Heterogeneous Data for the Biogeographic Regionalization of the European Bryophyte Flora

The definition of biogeographic regions provides a fundamental framework for a range of basic and applied questions in biogeography, evolutionary biology, systematics and conservation. Previous research suggested that environmental forcing results in highly congruent regionalization patterns across taxa, but that the size and number of regions depends on the dispersal ability of the taxa considered. We produced a biogeographic regionalization of European bryophytes and hypothesized that (1) regions defined for bryophytes would differ from those defined for other taxa due to the highly specific eco-physiology of the group and (2) their high dispersal ability would result in the resolution of few, large regions. Species distributions were recorded using 10,000 km² MGRS pixels. Because of the lack of data across large portions of the area, species distribution models employing macroclimatic variables as predictors were used to determine the potential composition of empty pixels. K-means clustering analyses of the pixels based on their potential species composition were employed to define biogeographic regions. The optimal number of regions was determined by v-fold cross-validation and Moran’s I statistic. The spatial congruence of the regions identified from their potential bryophyte assemblages with large-scale vegetation patterns is at odds with our primary hypothesis. This reinforces the notion that post-glacial migration patterns might have been much more similar in bryophytes and vascular plants than previously thought. The substantially lower optimal number of clusters and the absence of nested patterns within the main biogeographic regions, as compared to identical analyses in vascular plants, support our second hypothesis. The modelling approach implemented here is, however, based on many assumptions that are discussed but can only be tested when additional data on species distributions become available, highlighting the substantial importance of developing integrated mapping projects for all taxa in key biogeographically areas of Europe, and the Mediterranean peninsulas in particular.     

Global conservation strategies for two clades of snakes: combining taxon-specific goals with general prioritization schemes

Aim We present the first attempt of mapping global conservation priorities for two snake clades, Viperidae and Elapidae. We compared the global conservation priorities of each clade with the nine global conservation schemes defined by Brooks et al. to evaluate how effective these schemes are in ensuring the preservation of viperid and elapid biodiversity. Location Global. Methods Based on range maps of 228 species of Viperidae and 224 species of Elapidae, we used systematic conservation planning methods of complementarity and irreplaceability to generate a set of conservation networks under two cost scenarios: (1) minimizing conservation‐human development conflicts and (2) maximizing environmental suitability for high snake richness. Analysis of variance was used to investigate whether the mean irreplaceability of cells matching the areas covered by each of the nine global prioritization schemes in Brooks et al. was higher than the mean irreplaceability of cells located outside these areas. Results Overall, few areas showed irreplaceability higher than 0.5 based on a goal of representing 25% of the species’ ranges. The conservation networks generated in expectation of low conflicts between human development and conservation were quite different from the networks of high environmental suitability. Areas with higher irreplaceability coincided with the regions covered by global schemes of Endemic Bird Areas (for Viperidae and Elapidae) and High‐Biodiversity Wilderness (for Elapidae). Main conclusions Our findings indicated the existence of viable conservation opportunities for these two snake groups. This study can be viewed as a way to overcome, at least in part, the recent criticism concerning the independent development of several global conservation priorities by evaluating which groups of organisms are better represented in each of them. More than simply determining priorities for snakes’ conservation, our analyses showed that the development of parallel priority‐setting initiatives can be reconciled with those strategies for which financial resources are already being designed.     

The partitioning of Africa: statistically defined biogeographical regions in sub‐Saharan Africa

Aim To test whether it is possible to establish a common biogeographical regionalization for plants and vertebrates in sub‐Saharan Africa (the Afrotropical Region), using objective multivariate methods. Location Sub‐Saharan Africa (Afrotropical Region). Methods We used 1° grid cell resolution databases for birds, mammals, amphibians and snakes (4142 vertebrate species) and c. 13% of the plants (5881 species) from the Afrotropical Region. These databases were analysed using cluster analysis techniques to define biogeographical regions. A β(sim) dissimilarity matrix was subjected to a hierarchical classification using the unweighted pair‐group method with arithmetic averages (UPGMA). The five group‐specific biogeographical regionalizations were compared against a regionalization developed from a combined database, and a regionalization that is maximally congruent with the five group‐specific datasets was determined using a consensus classification. The regionalizations were interpreted against measures of spatial turnover in richness and composition for the five datasets as well as the combined dataset. Results We demonstrate the existence of seven well‐defined and consistent biogeographical regions in sub‐Saharan Africa. These regionalizations are statistically defined and robust between groups, with minor taxon‐specific biogeographical variation. The proposed biogeographical regions are: Congolian, Zambezian, Southern African, Sudanian, Somalian, Ethiopian and Saharan. East Africa, the West African coast, and the transitions between the Congolian, Sudanian and Zambezian regions are unassigned. The Cape area in South Africa, Afromontane areas and the coastal region of East Africa do not emerge as distinct regions but are characterized by high neighbourhood heterogeneity, rapid turnover of species and high levels of narrow endemism. Main conclusions Species distribution data and modern cluster analysis techniques can be used to define biogeographical regions in Africa that reflect the patterns found in both vertebrates and plants. The consensus of the regionalizations between different taxonomic groups is high. These regions are broadly similar to those proposed using expert opinion approaches. Some previously proposed transitional zones are not recognized in this classification.     

中国生态区划研究进展:从格局、功能到服务

在总结国内外生态区域研究的基础上,系统梳理了中国现有的生态区划方案,总结出生态特征和类型区划、生态地理和格局区划、生态功能和服务区划三大类,分别对每个区划的指标、技术、方案、特点进行了归纳,并提出了各自存在的问题。现有研究缺少面向服务供需的生态系统区划,生态制图和更新的标准化技术也存在不足。为此,提出明确不同生态区划的科学或管理目标、强调人类需求对于生态系统服务的影响、重视全球气候变化对生态系统的现实作用和未来影响、加强现代制图技术在生态区划的作用、整合现有多原则和多目标的生态分区方案等五个方面的建议。     

Functional traits as indicators of biodiversity response to land use changes across ecosystems and organisms

Rigorous and widely applicable indicators of biodiversity are needed to monitor the responses of ecosystems to global change and design effective conservation schemes. Among the potential indicators of biodiversity, those based on the functional traits of species and communities are interesting because they can be generalized to similar habitats and can be assessed by relatively rapid field assessment across eco-regions. Functional traits, however, have as yet been rarely considered in current common monitoring schemes. Moreover, standardized procedures of trait measurement and analyses have almost exclusively been developed for plants but different approaches have been used for different groups of organisms. Here we review approaches using functional traits as biodiversity indicators focussing not on plants as usual but particularly on animal groups that are commonly considered in different biodiversity monitoring schemes (benthic invertebrates, collembolans, above ground insects and birds). Further, we introduce a new framework based on functional traits indices and illustrate it using case studies where the traits of these organisms can help monitoring the response of biodiversity to different land use change drivers. We propose and test standard procedures to integrate different components of functional traits into biodiversity monitoring schemes across trophic levels and disciplines. We suggest that the development of indicators using functional traits could complement, rather than replace, the existent biodiversity monitoring. In this way, the comparison of the effect of land use changes on biodiversity is facilitated and is expected to positively influence conservation management practices.     

Pattern and process of biotic homogenization in the New Pangaea

Human activities have reorganized the earth''s biota resulting in spatially disparate locales becoming more or less similar in species composition over time through the processes of biotic homogenization and biotic differentiation, respectively. Despite mounting evidence suggesting that this process may be widespread in both aquatic and terrestrial systems, past studies have predominantly focused on single taxonomic groups at a single spatial scale. Furthermore, change in pairwise similarity is itself dependent on two distinct processes, spatial turnover in species composition and changes in gradients of species richness. Most past research has failed to disentangle the effect of these two mechanisms on homogenization patterns. Here, we use recent statistical advances and collate a global database of homogenization studies (20 studies, 50 datasets) to provide the first global investigation of the homogenization process across major faunal and floral groups and elucidate the relative role of changes in species richness and turnover. We found evidence of homogenization (change in similarity ranging from −0.02 to 0.09) across nearly all taxonomic groups, spatial extent and grain sizes. Partitioning of change in pairwise similarity shows that overall change in community similarity is driven by changes in species richness. Our results show that biotic homogenization is truly a global phenomenon and put into question many of the ecological mechanisms invoked in previous studies to explain patterns of homogenization.     

Ecological and evolutionary consequences of biotic homogenization

Biotic homogenization, the gradual replacement of native biotas by locally expanding non-natives, is a global process that diminishes floral and faunal distinctions among regions. Although patterns of homogenization have been well studied, their specific ecological and evolutionary consequences remain unexplored. We argue that our current perspective on biotic homogenization should be expanded beyond a simple recognition of species diversity loss, towards a synthesis of higher order effects. Here, we explore three distinct forms of homogenization (genetic, taxonomic and functional), and discuss their immediate and future impacts on ecological and evolutionary processes. Our goal is to initiate future research that investigates the broader conservation implications of homogenization and to promote a proactive style of adaptive management that engages the human component of the anthropogenic blender that is currently mixing the biota on Earth.     

Defining hotspots of characteristic species for multiple taxonomic groups in the Netherlands

Biogeographical zonation based on single taxa poses major limitations on planning for nature conservation. This paper identifies biogeographical patterns of multiple taxa in the Netherlands, where no endemics are present at species level, on the basis of characteristic species. We used occurrence data on five species groups in order to identify spatially coherent, ecologically important regions. TWINSPAN was used to cluster grid squares according to similarity in species composition for each taxonomic group. Species that are characteristic of each of the clusters were identified using a preference index, and corresponding clusters among the taxonomic groups were identified with Kappa statistics. Regions containing characteristic species for several taxonomic groups were defined as ‘hotspots’. Stepwise discriminant analysis was then used to characterize these hotspots according to differences in environmental conditions. The analysis yielded five regions that are clearly distinct in terms of species composition for individual taxonomic groups. Each region is characterized by a set of unique species that occur in the zonation of at least two of the taxonomic groups. Stepwise discriminant analysis revealed significant environmental differences among these regions. The concept of hotspots as operationalized in this study can make nature conservation planning more efficient. In combination, the hotspots defined here comprise the majority of the species occurring in the Netherlands for the studied groups. Therefore, this regionalization should be taken into account when prioritizing nature conservation efforts.     

Eukaryotic microbes, species recognition and the geographic limits of species: examples from the kingdom Fungi

The claim that eukaryotic micro-organisms have global geographic ranges, constituting a significant departure from the situation with macro-organisms, has been supported by studies of morphological species from protistan kingdoms. Here, we examine this claim by reviewing examples from another kingdom of eukaryotic microbes, the Fungi. We show that inferred geographic range of a fungal species depends upon the method of species recognition. While some fungal species defined by morphology show global geographic ranges, when fungal species are defined by phylogenetic species recognition they are typically shown to harbour several to many endemic species. We advance two non-exclusive reasons to explain the perceived difference between the size of geographic ranges of microscopic and macroscopic eukaryotic species when morphological methods of species recognition are used. These reasons are that microbial organisms generally have fewer morphological characters, and that the rate of morphological change will be slower for organisms with less elaborate development and fewer cells. Both of these reasons result in fewer discriminatory morphological differences between recently diverged lineages. The rate of genetic change, moreover, is similar for both large and small organisms, which helps to explain why phylogenetic species of large and small organisms show a more similar distribution of geographic ranges. As a consequence of the different rates in fungi of genetic and morphological changes, genetic isolation precedes a recognizable morphological change. The final step in speciation, reproductive isolation, also follows genetic isolation and may precede morphological change.     

Did evolution leap to create the protein universe?

The genomes of over 60 organisms from all three kingdoms of life are now entirely sequenced. In many respects, the inventory of proteins used in different kingdoms appears surprisingly similar. However, eukaryotes differ from other kingdoms in that they use many long proteins, and have more proteins with coiled-coil helices and with regions abundant in regular secondary structure. Particular structural domains are used in many pathways. Nevertheless, one domain tends to occur only once in one particular pathway. Many proteins do not have close homologues in different species (orphans) and there could even be folds that are specific to one species. This view implies that protein fold space is discrete. An alternative model suggests that structure space is continuous and that modern proteins evolved by aggregating fragments of ancient proteins. Either way, after having harvested proteomes by applying standard tools, the challenge now seems to be to develop better methods for comparative proteomics.     

Bumble bees exhibit daily behavioral patterns in pollen foraging

In response to global declines in bee populations, several studies have focused on floral resource provisioning schemes to support bee communities and maintain their pollination services. Optimizing host-plant selection for supplemental floral provisioning requires an understanding of bee foraging behavior and preferences for host-plant species. However, fully characterizing these preferences is challenging due to multiple factors influencing foraging, including the large degree of spatiotemporal variability in floral resources. To understand bee pollen foraging patterns, we developed a highly controlled mechanistic framework to measure pollen foraging preferences of the bumble bee Bombus impatiens to nine plant species native to Pennsylvania. We recorded continuous observations of foraging behavior of the experimental bee community and individual bees, while simultaneously standardizing for the number of foragers in the environment and differences in floral display of each plant species, while controlling for flowering phenology such that bees only foraged when all plant species’ flowers were open. Our results demonstrate that B. impatiens exhibit predictable daily patterns in their pollen foraging choices, and their preferences are dominated by the host-plants they visit first. We hypothesize that these patterns at the community and individual levels are driven by the interplay between pollen abundance and quality. We recommend that daily cycles of host-plant visitation be considered in future studies to ensure precise and accurate interpretations of host-plant preference. Such precision is critical for comprehensive analyses of the proximate and ultimate mechanisms driving bee foraging behavior and the selection of host-plant species to use in habitat restoration protocols.     

Age group DNA methylation differences in lemon sharks (Negaprion brevirostris): Implications for future age estimation tools

Age information is often non‐existent for most shark populations due to a lack of measurable physiological and morphological traits that can be used to estimate age. Recently, epigenetic clocks have been found to accurately estimate age for mammals, birds, and fish. However, since these clocks rely, among other things, on the availability of reference genomes, their application is hampered in non‐traditional model organisms lacking such molecular resources. The technique known as Methyl‐Sensitive Amplified Polymorphism (MSAP) has emerged as a valid alternative for studying DNA methylation biomarkers when reference genome information is missing, and large numbers of samples need to be processed. Accordingly, the MSAP technique was used in the present study to characterize global DNA methylation patterns in lemon sharks from three different age groups (juveniles, subadults, and adults). The obtained results reveal that, while MSAP analyses lack enough resolution as a standalone approach to infer age in these organisms, the global DNA methylation patterns observed using this technique displayed significant differences between age groups. Overall, these results confer that DNA methylation does change with age in sharks like what has been seen for other vertebrates and that MSAP could be useful as part of an epigenetics pipeline to infer the broad range of ages found in large samples sizes.     

Horizontal and elevational phylogeographic patterns of Himalayan and Southeast Asian forest passerines (Aves: Passeriformes)

Aim Zoogeographic patterns in the Himalayas and their neighbouring Southeast Asian mountain ranges include elevational parapatry and ecological segregation, particularly among passerine bird species. We estimate timings of lineage splits among close relatives from the north Palaearctic, the Sino‐Himalayan mountain forests and from adjacent Southeast Asia. We also compare phylogeographic affinities and timing of radiation among members of avian communities from different elevational belts. Location East Asia. Methods We reconstructed molecular phylogenies based on a mitochondrial marker (cytochrome b) and multilocus data sets for seven passerine groups: Aegithalidae, Certhiidae (Certhia), Fringillidae (Pyrrhula), Paridae (Periparus), Phylloscopidae, Regulidae and Timaliidae (Garrulax sensu lato). Molecular dating was carried out using a Bayesian approach applying a relaxed clock in beast . Time estimates were inferred from three independent calibrations based on either a fixed mean substitution rate or fixed node ages. The biogeographic history of each group was reconstructed using a parsimony‐based approach. Results Passerine radiation in Southeast Asia can be divided into roughly three major phases of separation events. We infer that an initial Miocene radiation within the Southeast Asian region included invasions of (sub)tropical faunal elements from the Indo‐Burmese region to the Himalayan foothills and further successive invasions to Central Asia and Taiwan towards the early Pliocene. During two further Pliocene/Pleistocene phases, the subalpine mountain belt of the Sino‐Himalayas was initially invaded by boreal species with clear phylogenetic affinities to the north Palaearctic taiga belt. Most terminal splits between boreal Himalayan/Chinese sister taxa were dated to the Pleistocene. Main conclusions Extant patterns of elevational parapatry and faunal transition in the Sino‐Himalayas originated from successive invasions from different climatic regions. The initiation of Southeast Asian passerine diversification and colonization of the Himalayan foothills in the mid‐Miocene coincides with the postulated onset of Asian monsoon climate and the resulting floral and faunal turnovers. Patterns of elevational parapatry were established by southward invasions of boreal avifaunal elements to the subalpine Sino‐Himalayan forest belt that were strongly connected to climate cooling towards the end of the Pliocene. Current patterns of allopatry and parapatry in boreal species (groups) were shaped through Pleistocene forest fragmentation in East Asia.     

The relative congruence of cranial and genetic estimates of hominoid taxon relationships: implications for the reconstruction of hominin phylogeny

Previous analyses of extant catarrhine craniodental morphology have often failed to recover their molecular relationships, casting doubt on the accuracy of hominin phylogenies based on anatomical data. However, on the basis of genetic, morphometric and environmental affinity patterns, a growing body of literature has demonstrated that particular aspects of cranial morphology are remarkably reliable proxies for neutral modern human population history. Hence, it is important to test whether these intra-specific patterns can be extrapolated to a broader primate taxon level such that inference rules for understanding the morphological evolution of the extinct hominins may be devised. Here, we use a matrix of molecular distances between 15 hominoid taxa to test the genetic congruence of 14 craniomandibular regions, defined and morphometrically delineated on the basis of previous modern human analyses. This methodology allowed us to test directly whether the cranial regions found to be reliable indicators of population history were also more reliable proxies for hominoid genetic relationships. Cranial regions were defined on the basis of three criteria: developmental-functional units, individual bones, and regions differentially affected by masticatory stress. The results found that all regions tested were significantly and strongly correlated with the molecular matrix. However, the modern human predictions regarding the relative congruence of particular regions did not hold true, as the face was statistically the most reliable indicator of hominoid genetic distances, as opposed to the vault or basicranium. Moreover, when modern humans were removed from the analysis, all cranial regions improved in their genetic congruence, suggesting that it is the inclusion of morphologically-derived humans that has the largest effect on incongruence between morphological and molecular estimates of hominoid relationships. Therefore, it may be necessary to focus on smaller intra-generic taxonomic levels to more fully understand the effects of neutral and selective evolutionary processes in generating morphological diversity patterns.     

Phylogeographic evidence for the existence of an ancient biogeographic barrier: the Isthmus of Kra Seaway

Biogeographic boundaries are characterised by distinct faunal and floral assemblages restricted on either side, but patterns among groups of taxa often vary and may not be discrete. Historical biogeography as a consequence, while providing crucial insights into the relationship between biological diversity and earth history, has some limitations. Patterns of intraspecific molecular variation, however, may show unambiguous evidence for such historical divides, and can be used to test competing biogeographic hypotheses (often based on the dispersal-vicariance debate). Here, we utilise this method to test the hypothesis that a major biogeographic transition zone between the Sundaic and Indochinese biotas, located just north of the Isthmus of Kra in SE Asia, is the result of Neogene marine transgressions that breached the Isthmus in two locations for prolonged periods of time (>1 million year duration). Phylogeographic analyses of a freshwater decapod crustacean, the giant freshwater prawn Macrobrachium rosenbergii, strongly supports the historical existence of the more northerly postulated seaway. Results presented here highlight the power of utilising intraspecific molecular variation in testing biogeographical hypotheses.     

从生物地理区划到生态功能区划——全球生态区划研究进展

全球生态区划可以为全球和区域的生态系统保护与管理起到关键的空间指引作用,但当前全球生态区划方案存在重视生物地理分布特征而忽视生态系统服务的问题。系统梳理了全球生态区划研究进展,并总结为萌芽、发展和再认识的3个阶段。Bailey和Olson等的两套全球生态区划方案在近40年来使用最为广泛,但两套以生物多样性保护为区划目标的方案均属于生物地理区划范畴。为实现对区域生态安全保障和人地关系协调的全面支持,有必要开展以功能区划为主的全球生态区划研究,进一步完善生态区划理论体系、探索生态区划方法集成、突出生态系统服务权衡并聚焦人地关系动态演化。     

Local climate mediates spatial and temporal variation in carabid beetle communities in three forests in Mount Odaesan,Korea

1. Global environmental change can dramatically alter the composition of floral and faunal communities, and elucidating the mechanisms underlying this process is important for predicting its outcomes. Studies on global climate change have mostly focused on statistical summaries within wide spatial and temporal scales; less attention has been paid to variability in microclimates at narrower spatial and temporal scales. 2. The microclimate is the suite of climatic conditions measured in a local area. Environmental variables at the microclimatic scale can be critical for the ecology of organisms inhabiting each area. The effect of spatial and temporal changes in the microclimate on the ecology of carabid beetle communities in three sites on Mount Odaesan, Korea was examined. 3. Carabid beetle communities and quantified site‐specific environmental factors from measurements of air temperature, air humidity, light intensity and soil temperature over 5 years (2010–2015) were surveyed. 4. It was found that microclimatic variables and the patterns of temporal changes in carabid beetle communities differed between the three sites within the single mountain system. Microclimatic variables influencing temporal changes in beetle communities also differed between the sites. Therefore, it is suggested that variation in local microclimates affects spatial and temporal variation in carabid beetle communities at a local scale. 5. The present results demonstrate the importance of regular surveys of communities at local scales. Such surveys are expected to reveal an additional fraction of variation in communities and underlying processes that have been overlooked in studies of global community patterns and change.     

Fertilization alters the abundance but not the diversity of soil fauna: A meta-analysis

Aim

Soil fauna, a functionally important group of soil organisms, are greatly affected by fertilization. However, it is still debated whether and how fertilization affects the soil faunal community. Here, we aimed to synthesize the global patterns of soil fauna communities in response to fertilization in terrestrial ecosystems.

Location

Global.

Time period

1997–2021.

Major taxa studied

Soil fauna.

Methods

We examined the effects of fertilization on the abundance, number of groups and Shannon diversity of soil fauna by synthesizing 1218 observations based on 39 published studies. We also explored the associations between fertilization-induced changes in the soil faunal community and changes in soil and microbial properties.

Results

Fertilization increased the abundance of soil fauna by 56.3%, without significantly affecting the number of groups and the Shannon index. The type of fertilizer affected the responses of soil faunal abundance, and the effects of fertilizer type were altered by climate zones, ecosystem types and soil depths. Both organic and organic–mineral fertilizer treatments significantly increased the abundance of soil fauna in most climate zones, ecosystem types and soil depths, whereas mineral fertilizer treatment had no such effect. Additionally, we found inconsistent responses of soil fauna to fertilization among different taxonomic groups, not only at the order level but also at the class level, providing evidence for the idiosyncratic nature of the effects of fertilization on soil fauna. Furthermore, our regression analysis showed that changes in food resources, including soil nutrients and microbes, were crucial controls for the response of soil faunal abundance to fertilization.

Main conclusions

Fertilization generally increased soil faunal abundance at the global scale by affecting food resources, and the effects of fertilization were dependent on the specific soil fauna and type of fertilizer. We suggest the use of organic or organic–mineral fertilizers, rather than mineral fertilizers, to increase the benefits on specific soil fauna.