Ambivalence toward small families in rural Latin America

Data from a rural fertility survey conducted among 6814 15-49 year old women in Costa Rica. Colombia, Mexico, and Peru in 1968 and 1969 is used to determine social definitions of large and small families and advantages and disadvantages associated with family size. Large families were defined as having between 9.5-10.7 children. Small families were defined as having 3.2-4.0 children. 79% found disadvantages to large families (costs and/or influence of cost factors on family well being) compared to 38% for small families (better care for children and better off economically). More than 1/2 the women preferred small families to large, with less than 10% preferring large families. The mean number of children considered ideal was 4.6-6.3. 35-59% wanted no more children.     

Family configuration and family size

In a sample of 61,829 US families, the probability of having an additional child is higher in those families with all the children the same sex as compared to those families with children of both sexes. Data are from families of American high school students who took the National Merit Scholarship Qualifying test in 1965. All families with 3 or 4 children were selected. Families with only boys were more likely to have an additional child than families with all girls. Less than 1% of the variance in family size is explained by family configuration. Although the sample size makes these results unequivocal for the population involved, the population is clearly biased in favor of white middle class families.     

Family configuration and family size

Abstract

In a sample of 61,829 families, the probability of having an additional child is higher in those families with all children of the same sex as compared to those families with children of both sexes. In addition, families with only boys were more likely to have an additional child than families with all girls.     

Child–Companion Animal Attachment Bonds in Single and Two-Parent Families

ABSTRACT

This study addressed the issue of whether children who potentially have reduced access to parental resources have a stronger attachment bond with a dog, compared with children who have greater access. The study compared children in single-parent families with those in two-parent families on level of attachment to their family dog. Parents judged children's level of attachment to dogs by completing the Companion Animal Bonding Scale. The children's ages ranged between three and twelve years. Overall, children in single-parent families did show significantly higher levels of attachment to dogs than children in two-parent families. A comparison of attachment to dogs across family type showed that children in the early childhood stage in single-parent families had significantly higher levels of bonding with dogs than children in the early childhood stage in two-parent families. For the middle childhood stage there was no significant difference between family type and attachment to dogs. Comparisons within family type showed mixed results, and there were no significant gender differences in attachment levels across family type. Findings are discussed in light of attachment theory, family systems theory and implications for child development.     

Different numbers of maternal and paternal siblings of cystic fibrosis patients

Summary When 458 parents of children suffering from cystic fibrosis (CF) from all over the German Democratic Republic were interviewed to determine the number of their siblings, it was found that the maternal families had a total of 1369 children and the paternal, 1220. While the fathers of CF patients tended to originate from families with one or two children, more mothers than fathers came from families with three to twelve children (P=0.01). The average number of children in the maternal families was 2.99; in the paternal families, only 2.66. To rule out any methodological errors, sibs of mothers and fathers of various control groups were studied. We found that the number of siblings in these groups was balanced. The differences in our findings are probably due to CF heterozygosity. The underlying mechanism is unknown.     

Influence of some socio-economic factors on growth and development of the boys in the Tuzla region (Bosnia and Herzegovina)

The impact of certain exogenous factor (socio-economic, ecological) has been investigated with special attention paid to the parents' living standard, and number of family members on some anthropometric parameters like: body height, body mass, chest circumference, upper leg circumference, upper arm circumference, sitting height, arm length, leg length, pelvis width, shoulders width, lenght of head and with of head on the sample of 698 boys aged 11 to 16 (17) years in the Tuzla region (the northeastern Bosnia, Western Balkan peninsula). Anthropometric measurements have been carried out using methodology proposed by the International Biological program (IBP). The results of these investigations have shown that there is a certain impact of the socio-economic conditions on the growth and development of boys. Children from families that have better living standard are, as a rule, taller, which is indicated by the statistical significant differences (P > 0.01). This trend indicates also value of Body Mass Index (BMI), which is in younger children from the families with lower living standard 16, while in the same category in the children from the families with better living standard it has value 18.5. The real impact of living conditions on the dynamics of development could be the best seen in the period of puberty. The number of children in the family has negative relationship with anthropometric features. Statistically significant differences (P > 0.001) have been detected in numerous analysed features in families with one or two children in comparison with families with three, four, or five children. Therefore, BMI has been significantly lower (16) in children from families with several children, while in the families with one child in the same growth class (11 years) it was significantly higher (17.4). Similar value of BMI (17.9) have children from the families with five children and which are 17 years old. Besides socio-economic conditions, high level of environmental pollution which is typical for Tuzla region for a long time, has also significant impact on the growth and development of children.     

Development of Overweight in Children in Relation to Parental Weight and Socioeconomic Status

The purpose of the study was to test the hypothesis that socioeconomic status (SES) moderates the association between parental weight and changes in BMI from childhood to early adolescence. Participants included 428 twin children from 100 families with obese parents (“obese families”) and 114 sociodemographically matched families with normal‐weight parents (“lean families”) who were assessed in their homes (age = 4.4). Follow‐up study was conducted 7 years later (age = 11.2) on 346 children (81%). Complete data were available for 333 children. Family SES was indexed with maternal education. Children's weights and heights were measured to calculate BMI s.d. scores based on 1990 British norms. Overweight was defined as >91st BMI centile. In children with obese parents, BMI s.d. scores increased from 0.51 at age 4 to 1.06 at age 11. In children with lean parents, BMI s.d. scores decreased from 0.11 to 0.05. Prevalence of overweight remained stable from age 4 to 11 in children with lean parents (8% to 9%), but it more than doubled in children with obese parents (17% to 45%). There was a significant interaction between parental weight and family SES (P < 0.01), so that in children with lean parents there was no SES difference in the BMI status from age 4 to 11; however, in children with obese parents, the increase in adiposity was significantly greater in lower SES families. These results suggest that parental leanness confers significant protection against development of overweight in children regardless of family SES, while parental obesity is an adverse prognostic sign, especially in lower SES families.     

Grandmaternal ages at birth of parents of children with down syndrome in St. Petersburg

Data on the age of grandparents of 243 children with Down syndrome (DS) born between 1990 and 1999 are considered in this work in comparison with control families of 330 healthy children. In 102 families, where the age of the mother at the birth of a child with DS was younger 30 (or less than 30) years, the median ages of both maternal and paternal grandmothers of probands were actually the same (26 years). Actually, the median age of grandmothers in 226 young families having healthy children were also the same (27 years). No differences in the indicators in question were revealed between 141 families with DS and 104 families with healthy children, where the mothers were older than 29 years. Thus, our results have not confirmed the hypothesis about the influence of the age of DS probands’ grandmothers on the segregation of chromosomes in their daughters’ oogenesis, as well as the hypothesis about a significant contribution of the inherited trisomy of chromosome 21 to the frequency of DS in the general population.     

Stress in families of children who have ingested poisons.

One hundred families of children under 5 years admitted to Cardiff Hospitals after accidentally ingesting poisons were compared with 100 control families matched for socioeconomic class and age and sex of the child. Questioning about five major stress factors (serious family illness, pregnancy, recent family moves, one parent away from home, anxiety or depression in one or both parents) disclosed significantly more stress in the affected families than in the controls. Thirty of the affected families had more than one major stress factor compared with four of the controls, while 63 of the controls had no major stress factor compared with 24 of the affected families (P less than 0.001). In only four of the affected families was there no stress factor. Fifteen children took poisons in homes other than their own. Unemployment was significantly more prevalent in the affected families than in the general population, though apart from this the socioeconomic backgrounds were similar. There were significantly more accidents and childhood poisonings in the parents and siblings of affected children than in the control families. In 25% of the cases poisoning was with Angiers Junior Aspirin.     

Detection of HBsAg in the familial environment of children with viral hepatitis B

A total of 231 persons from the families of 62 children hospitalized in connection with viral hepatitis B were examined for the presence of HBsAg in their blood over a period of 3 years. Simultaneously with countercurrent electrophoresis (CIE) and the gel precipitation (GP) test, the passive hemagglutination (PHA) test and the GP test with sandwich treatment were used in this work. The presence of HBs-antigenemia in the members of the families of children with viral hepatitis confirmed by laboratory methods were found to occur 6.7 times more frequently than in the families of children with HBsAg-negative hepatitis. The use of the PHA test and the GP test with sandwich treatment increased the frequency of the detection of HBsAg 2.5 times in comparison with CIE and the GP test. The data indicating the possibility of children being infected through everyday contacts in families with cases of HBs-antigenemia among their members are presented, but further studies are necessary to make the final decision on this problem.     

HLA-GLO linkage analysis in 57 informative families

The HLA-GLO linkage relationship was investigated among 37 single backcross families with 97 children and 20 double intercross families with 51 children. For the total number of families the value Zmas = 14.600 for theta = 0.060 was found. A total of 11 cross-overs between HLA and GLO were found leading to a recombination fraction of 0.067. 221 unrelated haplotypes were examined for linkage disequilibrium between HLA and GLO, and no disequilibrium was found.     

Mental health problems of homeless children and families: longitudinal study

Objective: To establish the mental health needs of homeless children and families before and after rehousing. Design: Cross sectional, longitudinal study. Setting: City of Birmingham. Subjects: 58 rehoused families with 103 children aged 2-16 years and 21 comparison families of low socioeconomic status in stable housing, with 54 children. Main outcome measures: Children’s mental health problems and level of communication; mothers’ mental health problems and social support one year after rehousing. Results: Mental health problems remained significantly higher in rehoused mothers and their children than in the comparison group (mothers 26% v 5%, P=0.04; children 39% v 11%, P=0.0003). Homeless mothers continued to have significantly less social support at follow up. Mothers with a history of abuse and poor social integration were more likely to have children with persistent mental health problems. Conclusions: Homeless families have a high level of complex needs that cannot be met by conventional health services and arrangements. Local strategies for rapid rehousing into permanent accommodation, effective social support and health care for parents and children, and protection from violence and intimidation should be developed and implemented.

Key messages

• Homeless children and their mothers have a high level of mental health problems
• Homeless families experience many risk factors, such as domestic violence, abuse, and family and social disruption
• In two fifths of children and a quarter of mothers, mental health problems persisted after rehousing
• In contrast with a comparison group of families of low socioeconomic status, a substantial proportion of homeless families remained residentially and socially unstable

     

Large-scale survey of hepatitis B virus infection in families

To investigate HBV transmission in families on three islands in Okinawa, Japan, prevalence of HBV markers in two groups of inhabitants was determined. One group consisted of members of families in which there was at least one HBsAg carrier (carrier families); the other group consisted of members of families in which there were no HBsAg carriers (non-carrier families). A total of 3,261 serum samples were collected from subjects on Iriomote Island, Hateruma Island, and Yonaguni Island. These samples were tested for HBsAg by reversed passive hemagglutination (RPHA) and for antibody to hepatitis B core antigen (anti-HBc) by radioimmunoassay. Overall prevalences of HBsAg and anti-HBc were 8.2 and 65.8 per cent respectively. The prevalence of anti-HBC among members of carrier families (80.8%) was significantly higher than that among members of non-carrier families (61.6%) (P less than 0.001). The prevalence of anti-HBc among members of carrier families was higher in all age groups, and was particularly so in children. Within carrier families, the prevalence of anti-HBc was significantly higher in families in which there was at least one HBsAg carrier with HBeAg (94.5%) than in families with no HBeAg-positive carriers (76.1%). This difference was especially marked in young children. These data suggest that in families with HBsAg carrier(s), the risk of transmitting HBV to members, particularly to young children, is higher than in families without carriers, and that the risk is further increased in families with HBeAg-positive carrier(s).     

Recruitment and attrition in twin register studies of childhood behavior: the example of the Australian Twin ADHD Project.

There are a growing number of large-scale initiatives for twin registers of children. The Australian Twin ADHD Project (ATAP) is used to illustrate two key limitations which may arise with such studies, namely (1) the importance of including or possibly excluding families in which one or both twins have significant developmental disability, and (2) the selective failure to recruit and/or the selective attrition of families in which parents and children share behavioral difficulties. Initially ATAP excluded 1 in 6 of families whose twins were enrolled in the volunteer-based Australian Twin Registry (ATR), and as more children with significant problems were identified, these families were sequentially excluded. With longitudinal data over ten years, two points about retention were identified: the difficulty of retaining the twins in late adolescence, and the loss of the families whose twins had more ADHD symptoms. We discuss strategies for limiting the loss of families and for ensuring comparability of data across registers with similar interests but different methods of recruitment and exclusion.     

Food Choices and Consequences for the Nutritional Status: Insights into Nutrition Transition in an Hospital Community

Introduction

Although economic development is generally accompanied by improvements in the overall nutritional status of the country’s population the ‘nutritional transition’ often involves a shift to high energy diets and less exercise with negative consequences. This pilot study was done to examine if education of parents operates at the household level to influence dietary choices and the nutritional status of children in a small community of hospital workers.

Material and Methods

3 groups of persons with varying skill and education levels participated. Weighed food logs were used in all households to calculate ‘adult equivalent’ per-capita-consumption. Nutrients were calculated using nutrients calculator software. BMI was used to classify children as underweight, normal weight and overweight.

Results

128 individuals participated from 30 families included 47 children. 10 children (21%) were underweight, 29 (62%) were normal and 8 (17%) were overweight. Energy consumption was highest in families with overweight children 2692 +/-502 compared to 2259 +/-359 in families with normal weight and 2031+/-354 in the family of underweight children. These differences were statistically significant. 42% underweight children belonged to Class 1 at the lowest skill level and there were no overweight children in this group. Most of the overweight children belonged to Class 2. In Class 3 there were no underweight children and the majority was normal weight children.

Conclusion

Underweight children came from the poorer households. Per capita intake of the family as a whole correlated well with BMI in the children. There was increased obesity in middle income families belonging to Class 2—probably in families who move up the scale from deprivation. Nutritional status in children correlated mostly with maternal education status.     

Risk of Down syndrome in relatives of trisomy 21 children. A case-control study

We conducted a case-control study in families of Down syndrome children with classical trisomy 21 (n = 188) and in a control group of families of children referred to the same hospital for benign diseases (n = 185). The low sibling number does not allow any conclusion about the risk for sibs but our results do not support an increased incidence of Down syndrome among second and third degree relatives of trisomy 21 children. The choice of the control group and the restriction to close relatives protect us against biases which may have interfered in previous studies reporting recurrence in families.     

Acquired myopia in 11-year-old children.

Children who had acquired myopia by the age of 11 years were identified from a nationally representative sample. There were no overall sex differences in its occurrence but myopia was more common in children from non-manual families than in those from manual families. Short-sighted children were more likely to come from small families and to be of higher birth order than children with normal vision, and these associations held within each social class. At 11 years myopic children showed striking advantages in educational performance over their normal-sighted peers, as judged by tests of reading, arithmetic, and general ability. After adjustments had been made for social background, this age gain still amounted to over one year. Findings obtained at 7 years of age showed that superior educational attainments were already apparent before the onset of myopia. Children with myopia read in their leisure time more often than normally sighted children, but despite the visual impairment, they participated in outdoor sports as often as other children.     

Professional and personal attitudes about access and confidentiality in the genetic testing of children: a pilot study

The ability to perform predictive genetic testing of children raises ethical concerns regarding whether and when to test and the disclosure of results. Semi-structured interviews with a convenience sample of pediatricians (12) and geneticists (13) were conducted to see how they would react to parental requests for predictive genetic testing of their children, and their attitudes about testing their own children. We also asked about disclosure attitudes and practices for their patients' relatives and within their own families. Respondents would provide predictive genetic testing for most conditions, yet were less likely to seek this information about their own children. Respondents believed it was very important for patients to share some types of genetic information with relatives, and were directive in their counseling about intrafamilial disclosure, especially within their own families. Although respondents would almost never breach patient confidentiality, many would breach confidentiality within their own families. Health care professionals distinguish between their professional and personal roles with regard to issues of access and confidentiality in predictive testing of children. They are willing to provide greater access and more confidentiality for their patients than within their own families.     

Human sex ratios and sex distribution in sibships of size 2

We previously analyzed data from the U.S. National Health Interview Survey (NHIS, 1998 to 2002) on families with two biological children (10 years of age and younger) and found that the distribution of families with two boys, two girls, and one boy + one girl did not statistically conform to a binomial distribution regardless of the boy/girl sex ratio used. Using the best estimate of the sex ratio from the data, we found that there were significantly more families with opposite-sex siblings than families with same-sex siblings. No biological mechanism could explain these results at the time. In the present study we conducted an analysis of the first two children in sibships of size 3 from the same data source and found that there are significantly more same-sex sibships than unlike-sex sibships. Combining the two sets of data for the first two children produced observed numbers in close agreement with the expected numbers. A hypothesis of parental choice (family planning) appears to be strongly supported as an explanation for the discrepancies in the two sets of data individually. For example, parents who have a boy and a girl (either order) as their first two children are more likely to stop having children ("stopping rule") than are parents whose first two children are of the same sex.     

Child sexual abuse--children and families referred to a treatment project and the effects of intervention.

The characteristics of a series of 274 families who were referred to a sexual abuse treatment programme were analysed. Information was obtained on 411 abused children and 362 non-abused children. Different forms of sexual abuse were noted, with 77% of girls and 23% of boys affected. Boys tended to be abused at a younger age, more severely, and for longer periods than girls. There was a predominance of lower social class groups among the parents, and a wide variety of family structures, with reasonable stability over time. Ninety six per cent of perpetrators were men, and biological and step-parents predominated. Contributing factors in both the family history and the current perpetrators and their wives included sexual abuse, violence, chaotic families, marital problems, sexual difficulties, alcoholism, and subnormality. Follow up of 120 families, 180 victims, and 226 siblings showed that prosecution occurred in 60% of cases, with a high percentage of perpetrators being imprisoned. Treatment was offered to 87% of families, but because the treatment programme was in the early stages of development a variable number of children and parents were offered family treatment or treatment in groups for parents and children separately. There was an improvement in the victim''s circumstances in 61% of cases, and a noticeable reduction in "sexualised" and general emotional difficulties among victims, but there was reabuse rate of 16%. Protection of children was achieved through changes of family attitude and changes in family structure including divorce and separation: 14% of victims were rehabilitated to both parents, 33% to mothers only, and 26% to new families or other residences. Consensus in the family that abuse had occurred was seen as an important factor in determining which children could be rehabilitated with both their parents, with their mothers only, or with new families; which families could be offered or accepted treatment; and whether positive changes in the family occurred.