Drought and the organization of tree-hole mosquito communities

Summary In southeastern North America (North Florida, USA), the duration, frequency, and timing of drought differentially affect the survivorship of pre-adult tree-hole mosquitoes. Drought affects survivorship both by the direct action of dehydration on developing larvae and pupae and by the indirect modulation of predation. The drought-susceptible species, Toxorhynchites rutilus, Orthopodomyia signifera, and Anopheles barberi co-occur in more permanent holes that are larger, with larger, more vertical openings, lower down in larger trees, and contain darker water with higher conductivity, pH, and tannin-lignin content than the holes occupied by Aedes triseriatus that has drought-resistant eggs and rapid larval development. Ovipositing mosquitoes cue on physical and chemical attributes of tree holes independently of host tree species. These same attributes differ among drought-prone and drought-resistant holes but mosquitoes track these attributes more faithfully than the attributes predict tree-hole stability.     

Mechanisms of interference competition in the western tree-hole mosquito, Aedes sierrensis

Abstract.

• 1 Mechanisms of interference competition affecting Aedes sierrensis (Ludlow) were investigated in laboratory microcosms using reconstituted, natural tree-hole detritus as food and substrate.
• 2 Pupation success, larval development time, and pupal weight were all affected by larval density but not by surface area:volume ratio of the microcosm.
• 3 Mature fourth instars affected pupation success, pupal weight, and development time of developing cohorts separated from them by a 2 μm pore membrane impermeable to bacteria, indicating that chemical competition is proportional to density of at least older instars.
• 4 Cannibalism does not occur, regardless of the presence or absence of food or physical complexity.
• 5 Fourth instars inhibited each other's feeding at densities of 64 larvae/ml or greater. Feeding inhibition due to physical contact (encounter competition) was abated but not eliminated by increasing physical complexity of the microcosm by the addition of leaves.
• 6 Levels of detritus and larval density both affect weight of day-1 fourth instars. Resistance to encounter competition is proportional to fourth instar weight and weight-specific resistance is correlated with rank weight within a developing cohort.
• 7 At densities around the population equilibrium in nature, encounter competition should be taking place, especially in tree holes with few leaves or other large litter.

     

Anopheles stephensi and Toxorhynchites amboinensis: aseptic rearing of mosquito larvae on cultured cells

Aseptic larvae of Anopheles stephensi and Toxorhynchites amboinensis were reared on a continuous cell line (RU TAE 12 V) from the mosquito, T. amboinensis, that grew in suspension as multicellular vesicles. Surface-sterilized eggs were hatched in a 24-well plate containing 0.2 ml of Leibovitz's L-15 medium per well and incubated in a humidified atmosphere. Toxorhynchites amboinensis eggs of 36 hr or older were placed singly to assure hatching and avoid cannibalism. Hatching rates were over 80%. All larval instars were maintained in L-15 medium at 28 C with a 12-hr photoperiod. Anopheles stephensi larvae were reared in 25-cm2 tissue culture flasks containing 10 ml of L-15 medium with 30 to 50 first and second instar larvae or 10 third and fourth instar larvae per flask. Toxorhynchites amboinensis larvae remained in the 24-well plate in 1.5 ml of medium through the second instar; third instar larvae were kept in 12-well plates (3 ml of medium per well) and transferred to 25-cm2 flasks (10 ml per flask) when they reached the fourth instar. First and second instar A. stephensi larvae were fed cultured cells once, and third or fourth instar larvae twice a day. Toxorhynchites amboinensis larvae were fed vesicles once during the first 4 days after hatching, and every 1 or 2 days thereafter. Each A. stephensi larva consumed approximately 2 X 10(6) cells, and T. amboinensis larvae 10 times more cells before pupating. Anopheles stephensi pupated after 7 to 8 days and adults emerged during days 9 to 11. Pupation in T. amboinensis began on day 21 after hatching and adults emerged 5 days later. Cell lines isolated from A. stephensi larvae or embryos of the ticks Rhipicephalus sanguineus and Anocentor (Dermacentor) nitens supported only limited growth of A. stephensi larvae. Defibrinated hamster (Mesocricetus auratus) blood, though readily ingested, did not support the growth of A. stephensi whereas larvae reared on blood cells plus T. amboinensis cells showed limited growth.     

Interaction between light and chilling temperature on the inhibition of photosynthesis in chilling-sensitive plants*

Abstract. Fully expanded leaves of 25°C grown Phaseolus vulgaris and six other species were exposed for 3 h to chilling temperatures at photon flux densities equivalent to full sunlight. In four of the species this treatment resulted in substantial inhibition of the subsequent quantum yield of CO₂ uptake, indicating reduction of the photochemical efficiency of photosynthesis. The extent of inhibition was dependent on the photon flux density during chilling and no inhibition occurred when chilling occurred at a low photon flux density. No inhibition occurred at temperatures above 11.5°C, even in the presence of the equivalent of full sunlight. This interaction between chilling and light to cause inhibition of photosynthesis was promoted by the presence of oxygen at normal air partial pressures and was unaffected by the CO₂ partial pressure present when chilling occurred in air. When chilling occurred at low O₂ partial pressures, CO₂ was effective in reducing the degree of inhibition. Apparently, when leaves of chilling-sensitive plants are exposed to chilling temperatures in air of normal composition then light is instrumental in inducing rapid damage to the photochemical efficiency of photosynthesis.     

The functional response of Toxorhynchites rutilus rutilus to changes in the population density of its prey Aedes aegypti

We present an analysis of the functional response of the predator Toxorhynchites rutilus rutilus (Coquillett) to changes in the density of the larvae of Aedes aegypti (L.) (Diptera: Culicidae). The experiment was replicated for five different ages, and at three different densities of the predator. The data were fitted to Rogers' (1972) random predator equation by non-linear least-squares in order to estimate searching efficiency and handling time for each experimental treatment. The data show that estimated searching efficiencies are highest at intermediate ages of the predator for all predator densities tested. Handling time declines exponentially with increasing predator age. There is a marked interference effect; searching efficiency decreases with increased predator density, and this is most pronounced at intermediate prey ages. Estimated handling times increase with predator density at a rate which declines with increasing predator age.     

Ultrastructure of the spermatozoon of the mosquito Toxorhynchites (Diptera, Culicidae)

The spermatozoon of Toxorhynchites brevipalpis conradti Gruenberg is long and filiform. It contains an anterior nucleus, an axoneme of the 9 + 9 +"1" pattern and two mitochondrial derivatives. Comparison of our observations with bibliographical data shows that spermatozoon ultrastructure is homogeneous in the family Culicidae (Culicinae, Anophelinae and Toxorhyn-chitinae). The 9 + 9 +"1" pattern of the sperm axoneme may be considered a synapomorphy of the Culicidae.     

Interaction of vernalization, photoperiod and high temperature in flowering of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) HEYNH.

Flowering of Arabidopsis thaliana (L.) HEYNH., var. "Stockholm",plants, raised from vernalized seeds, may be modified by thephotoperiodic conditions or a short (1 week) exposure to hightemperature (32°C) following vernalization, depending onthe duration of the cold treatment. When vernalization is partial(1 to 4 weeks at 4°C), both short days (8hr light) and hightemperature have a devernalizing effect, but when the cold requirementhas been fully satisfied, after 5 to 6 weeks at 4°C, devernalizationis no longer possible. There is no interaction between photoperiodand high temperature. Fully vernalized plant flower in bothlong and short days, although flowering is delayed in shortdays. This delay is not a photoperiodic effect, however, butmay be ascribed to the decreased radiant energy available inan 8-hr photoperiod. Thus, fully vernalized Arabidopsis plantsare day-neutral. (Received November 5, 1969; )     

Osmoregulation in larvae of the salt-marsh mosquito, Aedes taeniorhynchus

Larvae of Aedes taeniorhynchus (Wiedemann) were reared in media with salinities from that of distilled water up to and including 300% of that of sea water to investigate certain aspects of their potential physiological range. Regulation of hemolymph osmotic pressure and chloride ions was also studied.Larvae showed normative growth rate in all concentrations from distilled water to 150% sea water (SW), but in salinities between 150% to 300% growth was retarded. Hemolymph osmotic pressure and hemolymph chloride were both hyper-and hypoosmotically regulated. Anal papillae size was inversely related with increased concentration of the sea water medium, e.g., from 443×142 in distilled water to 116×62 in 100% SW. The average hemolymph osmotic pressure was higher in fed larvae than in starved larvae. Hemolymph osmotic pressure increased for 7 hr before equilibrating with the medium when larvae reared to the 4th instar in 10% SW were transferred to 100% SW, whereas larvae reared in 100% SW and transferred to 10% SW showed a decrease in hemolymph osmotic pressure before equilibrating. Regulation of hemolymph chloride was found to be a function of the anal papillae, as chloride levels dropped significantly in larvae with chemically cauterized anal papillae when they were maintained in lower concentrations. It is suggested that the limitations of A. taeniorhynchus larvae primarily to salt-marshes are not due to an inability to survive and grow successfully in fresh water, but due to other ecological interactions.

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Zusammenfassung Larven von Aedes taeniorhynchus wurden in Medien mit einer Salinität von a.ddest. bis zu der von 300% Meerwasser (MW) gehalten, um die folgenden Aspekte einer möglichen physiologischen Wirkung zu untersuchen: a) Überleben und Wachstum der Larven, b) Osmotischer Druck der Hämolymphe (HL), sowie Grösse der Analpapillen in Abhängigkeit vom Zuchtmedium, c) Wirkung von Fütterung und Hungern auf den osmotischen Druck der HL, d) Wirkung der Übertragung von niedrigerer zu höherer Salinität und umgekehrt auf den osmotischen Druck und die Analpapillengrösse und e) Regulation des Chloridions in der HL.Osmotischer Druck der HL wurde bestimmt mit Hilfe des Mikrocryoskops, die Chloridio-nenkonzentration der HL durch Ultramikro-Volhard-Titration.Die Larven zeigten normales Wachstum und normale Überlebensrate bei allen Konzentrationen von a. dest. bis 150% MW, zwischen 150% und 300% MW war das Wachstum verzögert. Osmotischer Druck der HL und Chlorid der HL waren hyperosmotisch reguliert bis 10% MW und hypotonisch zwischen 25% und 300% MW. Die Grösse der Analpapillen nahm mit zunehmender Konzentration des MW-Mediums ab, z. B. von 443×142 m in a. dest. auf 116×62 m in 100% MW. Der durchschnittliche osmotische Druck der HL war bei gefütterten Larven höher als bei gehungerten. Wenn Larven, die bis zum 4. Stadium in 10% MW gehalten wurden, in 100% MW übertragen wurden, stieg der osmotische Druck der HL weit über die für 100% MW festgestellte Gleichgewichtslage hinaus an und näherte sich dieser (also durch Abnahme) erst nach 7 Stunden; bei Übertragung von 100% auf 10% MW erfolgte entsprechend zunächst eine übernormale Abnahme des osmotischen Drucks der HL vor Erreichen des Gleichgewichts. Die Regulation der HL-Chloride erwies sich als eine Funktion der Analpapillen, da der Chloridspiegel signifikant abfiel bei Larven, die mit chemisch kautorisierten Analpapillen in niedrigen Konzentrationen gehalten wurden. Es ist anzunehmen, dass die Beschränkung des Vorkommens von Aedes taeniorhynchus-Larven auf Aussenmarschen nicht verursacht wird durch die Unfähigkeit, in Süsswasser zu überleben und sich zu entwickeln, sondern durch andere ökologische Einflüsse.

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Contribution no. 315, Florida State Division of Health, Florida Medical Entomology Laboratory, P.O. Box 520, Vero Beach, Florida 32960.     

Effects of prey density, prey instar, and patch size on the development of the predatory mosquito, Toxorhynchites towadensis

Effects of prey density, prey instar, and patch size on the development of the predatory mosquito larva, Toxorhynchites towadensis, were investigated in the laboratory. Survivors of T. towadensis showed different developmental patterns in relation to prey age structure. All predatory larvae in containers with only second instar prey developed into the third instar. However, in several containers with fourth instar prey, mortality of predators was observed. During the third instar, no predatory larva died, but both prey density and prey instar significantly affected the survival of predators during their fourth instar. Large prey size promoted large predator adults, and predatory larvae which grew up in small surface containers responded by developing to large sizes than those in large containers. Larval developmental time of the predators differed in each treatment. During first and second instars, faster predator development was observed in containers with small surface areas and containing young prey individuals. However, when development was enhanced by the presence of old prey individuals, no surface effect was observed. The fastest predator development was observed with prey of mixed instars and high density. This study suggests that a small surface container containing prey of mixed instars and high density is suitable for development of predators.     

Interaction between the roach, Rutilus rutilus, and dace, Leuciscus leuciscus, populations in a river catchment in south-west England

The ecology of roach, Rutilus rutilus (L.), and dace, Leuciscus leuciscus (L.), populations from different regions of the R. Exe catchment was studied. Dace were the predominant cyprinid in the middle reaches whilst roach dominated in the slow-flowing lower reaches. Each species showed maximum growth rate and reproductive effort in its preferred habitat, i.e. where it dominated the fish community. The diet of roach consisted mainly of vegetable material, whilst dace were omnivorous. Although each species had a characteristic diet, there was considerable overlap. There was little evidence that variability between regions in growth rates of each species resulted from competition for food.     

Correlation between population dynamics of mosquito larvae and their habitat qualities

Surveillance of anopheline and culicine larvae was conducted fortnightly to determine population composition and density at seven sites in the area of the Mathura Refinery, Mathura, India during 2005–2006. The correlation between population of the vectors and their habitat quality was established. Temperature (0.978 and 0.85°C), pH (0.99 and 0.95), conductivity (0.98 and 0.98 mho) and calcium ion hardness (0.978 and 0.85 p.p.m.) were positively correlated with the populations of both larval species. In contrast, the correlation coefficients between the parameters total hardness, magnesium ion hardness, biochemical oxygen demand and chemical oxygen demand varied with the larval species. The anopheline larval population was dominant over the culicine population in the surveillance area. The distribution of anopheline mosquito larvae during the study period was found to be constant, and the average density of anopheline and culicine larvae was 84.70 and 15.30%, respectively, across all seven sites. Thus, the study demonstrated spatial and temporal population differences of mosquito larvae with respect to environmental factors, including water quality.     

The effect of DDT and rearing temperature on pecten spine number in larvae of the mosquito Aedes aegypti L.

Pecten spine number has been studied in larvae of Aedes aegypti exposed during development to low temperatures or to DDT at the fourth instar, both of which caused substantial mortality. But neither contingency caused stabilising selection for spine number, in contrast to what was observed in a previous study when larvae were exposed to scum on the surface of the rearing medium. — Two larval colour morphs, yellow and brown, did not differ in spine number.     

Effects of temperature, pH and salinity on the infection of Leptolegnia chapmanii Seymour (Peronosporomycetes) in mosquito larvae

The effects of temperature, pH, and NaCl concentrations on the infectivity of zoospores of Leptolegnia chapmanii (Argentine isolate) were determined for Aedes aegypti and Culex pipiens under laboratory conditions. Zoospores of L. chapmanii were infectious at temperatures between 10 and 35 degrees C but not at 5 or 40 degrees C. At the permissive temperatures, mortality rates in young instars were much higher than in older instars and larvae of Ae. aegypti were more susceptible to L. chapmanii than larvae of Cx. pipiens. At 25 degrees C, Ae. aegypti larvae challenged with L. chapmanii zoospores resulted in 100% infection at pH levels ranging from 4 to 10. Larvae of Cx. pipiens exposed to similar pH and zoospore concentrations resulted in increasing mortality rates from 62% to 99% at pH 4 to 7, respectively, and then decreased to 71% at pH 10. Aedes aegypti larvae exposed to L. chapmanii zoospores in NaCl concentrations ranging from 0 to 7 parts per thousand (ppt) at 25 degrees C resulted in 100% mortality while mortality rates for Cx. pipiens decreases from 96% in distilled water to 31.5% in water with 6 ppt NaCl. Control Cx. pipiens larvae died when exposed at a NaCl concentration of 7 ppt. Vegetative growth of L. chapmanii was negatively affected by NaCl concentrations. These results have demonstrated that the Argentinean isolate of L. chapmanii tolerated a wide range of temperatures, pH, and salinity, suggesting that it has the potential to adapt to a wide variety of mosquito habitats.     

Interactions between developmental processes,growth, and food selection in the larvae and juveniles of Rutilus rutilus (L.) (Cyprinidae)

Summary The aim of this study was to assess the effects of developmental events, occurring in fish during the first weeks after hatching, on the quantity and quality of the ingested food and on growth. The investigation was carried out with the larvae and juveniles of Rutilus rutilus, the single cyprinid species occurring in an oligotrophic subalpine lake in Tirol, Austria. Comparison between availability of prey in the water and gut contents suggests that the selection of food by the young fish is strongly influenced by developmental processes. For example, the prevalence of indigestible phytoplankton in the gut of young larvae can be taken as a sign of the not yet fully developed sensory and locomotory capacities of the young fish (El-Fiky et al. 1987). Furthermore, quantitative and qualitative changes in the gut contents correlate strongly with changes in the form and relative length of the gut, but reflect only weakly the availability of prey in the water. In the Seefelder See population of R. rutilus the switch from a phytoplankton to a cladoceran dominated diet is accompanied by an increase in relative growth rate by nearly one order of magnitude (Wieser et al. 1988).     

Wing polymorphism in Aphids IV. the effect of temperature and photoperiod

High temperatures and long days favour apterous development in Aphis craccivora Koch. Temperature was found to influence both prenatal and postnatal control of form while photoperiod was only found to influence prenatal control. It is suggested that when temperature and daylength are high and long enough to suppress sexual development in aphids, they also suppress alate development, but alate development can proceed in the presence of other factors such as crowding and poor host plant. The threshold of response of aphids to these stimuli is influenced by the temperature and photoperiod which they have experienced. There is some evidence which suggests that in prenatal form control temperature and photoperiod can act directly on the embryos.

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Zusammenfassung In temperaturkonstanten Räumen wurden unter kontrollierten Bedingungen Versuche über die Auslösung des Flügelpolymorphismus bei Aphis craccivora Koch und Aphis fabae Scop. durchgeführt. Die Blattläuse wurden bei verschiedenen Temperaturen und Tageslängen isoliert auf Blattscheiben gehalten, die aus Blättern ihrer Wirtspflanzen ausgeschnitten waren. Es ließ sich zeigen, daß bei Aphis craccivora sowohl Temperatur wie Photoperiode die praenatale Formdetermination beeinflussen können und daß die Temperatur, aber nicht die Photoperiode, die postnatale Formbildung beeinflussen kann. Niedere Temperaturen und kurze Tageslängen begünstigen die Entwicklung von Geflügelten, hohe Temperaturen und lange Tage dagegen die der Ungeflügelten. Bei Aphis fabae wurde nachgewiesen, daß Larve, die sich normalerweise zu Gynoparen entwickelt hätten, durch Aufzucht bei hohen Temperaturen zur Entwicklung in ungeflügelte Virginopare veranlaßt werden konnten und daß Dekapitation von ungeflügelten Aphis fabae, die geflügelte Virginopare produzierten, diese zur Produktion ungeflügelter Virginoparer umstimmte, daß aber die Dekapitation von Läusen, die geflügelte Gynopare hervorbrachten, keinen Einfluß auf die Form der Nachkommen ausübte, die sie daraufhin lieferten. Es wird vermutet, daß bei der praenatalen Formdetermination Temperatur und Photoperiode einen direkten Einfluß auf den Embryo haben. Wenn sie genügend hoch bzw. lang genug sind, um die Entwicklung von Sexuales zu verhindern, unterdrücken sie auch die Geflügeltenbildung, aber die Geflügeltenentwicklung kann trotzdem fortschreiten, wenn Reize vorhanden sind, die wie Zusammenpferchung mit anderen Läusen oder ungünstige Wirtspflanzen zusätzlich die Geflügeltenbildung begünstigen.

     

Influences of daylength and temperature on the period of diapause and its ending process in dormant larvae of burnet moths (Lepidoptera,Zygaenidae)

The onset of larval diapause in the burnet moth Zygaena trifolii is clearly characterized by the larva molting into a specialized dormant morph. In a potentially bivoltine Mediterranean population (Marseille) two types of diapause can occur within 1 year: firstly, a facultative summer diapause of 3–10 weeks, and secondly, an obligate winter diapause, which can be lengthened by a period of thermal quiescence to several months in temperatures of 5°C. For the first time, three successive physiological periods have been experimentally distinguished within an insect dormancy (between onset of diapause and molting to the next non-diapause stage), using chilling periods of 30–180 days at 5°C, and varying conditions of photoperiod and temperature. These stages are: (1) a continuous Diapause-ending process (DEP); (2) thermal quiescence (Q); and finally, (3) a period of postdiapause development (PDD) before molting to the next larval instar. The result of transferring dormant larvae from chilling at 5°C to 20°C depended on the length of the chilling period. After chilling for 120–180 days, molting to the next instar occurred after 6–10 days, independent of daylength. This period corresponds with the duration of PDD. After shorter chilling periods (90, 60, 30 days and the control, 0 days) the period to eclosion increased exponentially, and included both the latter part of the previous diapause process and the 6–10 day period of PDD. However, photoperiod also influences the time to eclosion after chilling. Short daylength (8 h light / 16 h dark: LD 8/16) lengthened the diapause in comparison to long daylength (16 h light / 8 h dark: LD 16/8). Short daylength had a similar effect during chilling at 5°C, as measured by the longer time to eclosion after transfer. The shorter time to eclosion resulting from longer chilling periods (30–90 days) demonstrates that the state of diapause is continuously shortened at 5°C, and corresponds to the neuroendocrine controlled DEP. Presumably the DEP has already started after the onset of diapause. When chilling was continued after the end of the DEP, which ranged between 90 and 120 days, thermal quiescence (Q) followed (observed maximum 395 days). Different photoperiodic conditions during the pre-diapause inductive period modified diapause intensity (measured as the duration of diapause), in that a photoperiodic signal just below the critical photoperiod for diapause induction (LD 15/9) intensified diapause. Experiments simulating the summer diapause showed that PDD occurred in the range of 10–25°C. Higher temperatures (15 and 20°C) shortened the DEP at LD 16/8, so that at 20°C many individuals had already terminated diapause after 10–40 days and had molted after the 6–10 days of PDD. A temperature of 25°C unexpectedly lengthened the DEP to 110 days in several individuals. The ecological consequences and the adaptive significance of variation in the duration of the diapause are discussed in relation to the persistence of local populations predictably variable and rare climatic extremes throughout the year.