Water permeability ofElodeacells and cytoplasm motion

The reduction of the rotational chloroplast motion velocity (CMV) during the exposure of Elodea cells to hypertonic solutions of PEG-4000 is satisfactorily described by an exponent. The dynamics of reduction correlates with the dynamic equilibration time (T_eq) between osmotic potentials of cell cytoplasm and external solution. The acceleration of the chloroplast motion, for example by gadolinium ions, results in the reduction of T_eq, and this is supposed to be due to the increase of the con tribution of the near-membrane Nernst layers to transmembrane transfer resistance resulting from the «blowing-off» of a part of the layer by moving cytoplasm.     

The state of water on hydrated collagen as studied by pulsed NMR

The spin-lattice relaxation time (T₁) of water adsorbed on collagen fibers was determined at six frequencies and temperatures varying from 25° to ?80°C. Care was taken to eliminate the contributions to the signal of protons other than those in the adsorbed water. Quantitative calculations were made on T₁ and the results were compared with the experimental data. It is suggested that a maximum of about 0.50–0.55 g water per g collagen forms a hydration layer, which cannot be frozen down to ?90°C and exhibits a distribution of motional correlation times. For collagen samples containing a larger quantity of adsorbed water, the additional water molecules behave like ordinary isotropic water, having a single correlation time and a freezing temperature of about ?10°C.     

Seasonal variations in colonization dynamics of periphytic protozoa in coastal waters of the Yellow Sea,northern China

The colonization features of periphytic protozoa have proved to be a useful tool for indicating water quality status in aquatic ecosystems. In order to reveal the seasonal variations in colonization dynamics of the protozoa, a 1-year baseline survey was carried out in coastal waters of the Yellow Sea, northern China. Using glass slides as artificial substrates, a total of 240 slides were collected at a depth of 1 m in four seasons after colonization periods of 3, 7, 10, 14, 21, and 28 days. A total of 122 ciliate species were identified with 21 dominant species. The colonization dynamics of the protozoa were well fitted to the MacArthur-Wilson and logistic models in all four seasons (P < 0.05). However, the equilibrium species numbers (S_eq), colonization rates (G), and the time to 90% S_eq (T_90%) represented a clear seasonal variability: (1) more or less similar levels in spring and autumn (S_eq = 29/23; G = 0.301/0.296; T_90%=7.650/7.779); (2) with a significant difference in summer and winter (S_eq = 32/121; G = 0.708/0.005; T_90% = 3.252/479.705). Multivariate approaches demonstrated that the exposure time for the species composition and community structure of the protozoa to an equilibrium period were 10–14 days in spring and autumn, but less and more time periods were needed in summer and winter, respectively. Based on the results, we suggest that the colonization dynamics of periphytic protozoa were different within four seasons, and an optimal sampling strategy for monitoring surveys should be modified during different seasons in marine ecosystems.     

Effects of seasonal and climate variations on calves’ thermal comfort and behaviour

The aim of this study was to measure the effect of season and climate variations on thermal comfort and behaviour of 6-month-old dairy calves housed in a semi-opened shelter to develop animal-based indicators for assessing animal thermal comfort. The ultimate purpose was to further exploit the use of those indicators to prevent thermal stress by providing appropriate care to the animals. Measurements were taken for winter and summer seasons. Results showed that season significantly influenced (P?≤?0.01) the lying down behaviour of calves by reducing the time spent lying, from 679.9 min in winter to 554.1 min in summer. Moreover, season had a significant influence (P?≤?0.01) on feeding behaviour. In detail, the total length of feeding periods was shorter in winter, 442.1 min in comparison to 543.5 min in summer. Time spent drinking increased significantly (P?≤?0.001), from 11.9 min in winter to 26.9 min in summer. Furthermore, season had a significant influence (P?≤?0.001) on self grooming behaviour which was 5.5 times longer in duration in winter than in summer (1,336 s vs 244 s). It was concluded that calves’ thermal comfort is affected by seasonal and climate variations and that this can be assessed by measuring behaviour with animal-based indicators, such as lying down, resting, standing up, feeding, rumination, drinking and self grooming. The indicators developed may be a useful tool to prevent animal thermal stress by providing appropriate housing and handling to calves under seasonal and climate challenge.     

The influence of weather and climate on the incidence of gastric ulcers after reserpine in rats

Each month over a period of 22 months two groups of female rats were given i.p. 2.5 mg reserpine/kg BW and the number of gastric ulcers/rat were counted 24 h later. One group (n = 40) was kept for 17 days under environmentally controlled conditions (temperature, humidity, light intensity, length of photoperiod) while the other group (n = 40) was maintained for the same 17 days in a room near the open window under uncontrolled conditions. Under uncontrolled conditions gastric ulcer rate was negatively correlated with T_a (r=–0.87), T_a+T_wb(r=–0.84), and T_eq=T_a+2e (r=–0.83) of the last 24 hours. The correlation coefficients were higher with meteorological data of the 24 hours after administration of reserpine than with the data of the previous 16 days. No seasonal variation of ulcer morbidity was observed in the rats kept under controlled conditions. Hence, in rats, reserpine increases the gastric ulcer rate in the cold. Serious errors might arise in the interpretation of experiments when the rats are not housed under environmentally controlled conditions.     

Classroom performance as a function of thermal comfort

Measures of mental performance and thermal sensations were gained from 23 classes of secondary school children in England (aged 11–16) during winter. Warmth was estimated in terms of equivalent (T_eq), corrected effective (CET) and air temperature. Statistical association was found between performance decrements at some tasks and environmental warmth, with maximum being located in conditions below thermal neutrality for the sample at approximately 62°F (16.5°C) T_eq. In certain cases lowered performance was evident within a range of temperatures normally considered as comfortable. The present results were compared to those of preceding studies and the practical application of the findings discussed.

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Zusammenfassung Während 2 Winterperioden wurden die geistige Leistung und das Wärmeempfinden 11–16 Jahre alter Schüler von 23 Sekundärschulklassen in Reading, England gemessen. Die Wärme wurde als Äquivalent-, Korrigierte wirksame (corrected effective) und Luft (trocken)-Temperatur bestimmt. Eine statistische Beziehung wurde zwischen Leistungsabfall und Umgebungswärme gefunden. Das Maximum des Abfalls lag unterhalb thermoneutraler Bedingungen bei ungefähr 16.5°C T_eq. In bestimmten Fällen war eine verminderte Leistung im Temperaturbereich erkennbar, der normalerweise als angenehm gilt. Die Ergebnisse werden mit denen früherer Studien verglichen.

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Resume On a mesuré le travail intellectuel et la sensibilité thermique des élèves de 23 classes secondaires (de 11 à 16 ans) de Reading (Angleterre). La chaleur a été prise en considération sous forme de température équivalente-potentielle (T_eq), effective corrigée (CET) et du thermomètre sec. On a trouvé une relation statistique entre une baisse du rendement pour certains travaux et la température ambiante. La baisse la plus importante se rencontre par des températures inférieures au point neutre de l'échantillon, c'est-à-dire inférieures à 16,5°C T_eq. Dans certains cas, on a dû constater une baisse de rendement évidente par des températures normalement considérées comme agréables. On compare ces résultats à ceux d'études précédentes et on en discute les applications pratiques possibles.

     

Clothing microclimate temperatures during thermal comfort in boys,young and older men

To examine the effects of age-related differences in thermoregulatory function on the clothing microclimate temperature (T _m) andT _m fluctuations while maintaining thermal comfort in daily life, 5 boys (group B, 10–11 years), 5 young men (group Y, 20–21 years) and 5 older men (group O, 60–65 years) volunteered to take part in this study. The subjects were asked to maintain thermal comfort as closely as possible in their daily lives.T _m (temperatures between the skin surface and the innermost garment) at four sites (chest, back, upper arm, and thigh), skin temperature on the chest (T _chest) and ambient temperature (T _a) were measured over a period of 8–12 h from morning to evening on one day in each of the seasons, spring, summer, autumn, and winter. Records of ability to maintain thermal comfort and of adjustment of their clothes were kept by each subject.T _a during periods of thermal comfort did not differ among the groups in any of the seasons. In group Y,T _m was significantly lower at the thigh than at the other sites in spring, autumn, and winter (P<0.05) and fluctuations (CV) ofT _m were significantly larger at the thigh than at other sites in autumn and winter (P<0.05). Similar tendencies were observed forT _m and CV ofT _m in group B. However,T _m and CV ofT _m in group O did not differ by site except for the autumnT _m. Group O had a smaller CV at the thigh in winter (P<0.05), compared to groups B and Y, suggesting a smaller regional difference inT _m fluctuation in group O. Group O adjusted their clothes even on the lower limbs (together with upper body) in order to maintain thermal comfort in accordance with changes inT _a, while groups B and Y did so only on their upper bodies. These results sugest that compared to boys and young men, lower thermoregulatory function in older men may affectT _m and CV ofT _m as a result of clothing on lower limbs being adjusted differently in order to maintain thermal comfort.     

The influence of exposure to cold on the incidence of gastric ulcers after reserpine in rats

Groups of female rats (n=20) exposed from 0 to 13 days to T_a's from 8.0° to 29.0°C were given 2.5 mg/kg reserpine i.p.; T_re and gastric ulcers (GU) were recorded 24 h afterwards. At exposure temperatures below 21.0°C there was a highly significant positive correlation between T_a and T_re (r=0.85) and a negative correlation between T_a and GU (r=–0.92). The GU rate after reserpine was not affected by temperatures above 21°C up to 29°C. Below 16.5°C a difference of the reserpine response was found between rats with less and more than 3 days acclimation to a given T_a. In rats with less than 3 days acclimation the mean T_re after reserpine was 1.0°C lower and the mean GU rate was 1.7 ulcers/rat higher than in rats with more than 3 days acclimation. The correlation of T_re with GU rate revealed that the mean number of GU increased with decreasing T_re · T_re and GU were negatively correlated in both series of experiments: r= –0.92 for non-acclimated rats and r= –0.95 for >3d acclimated rats. Cold acclimation of rats for 8 days at 13.0 °C or 13 days at 10.0 °C did not significantly affect T_re and the GU rate if the rats were taken to 21.0°C after reserpine administration. The results show that with and without cold-acclimation the extent of hypothermia in rats after a standard reserpine dose depends on the prevailing ambient temperature below the comfort range and the GU rate depends on the extent of the hypothermia.     

Scent-marking in captive red pandas (Ailurus fulgens)

Three male and three female captive red pandas (Ailurus fulgens) were observed during and outside of the breeding season to examine changes in scent-marking behavior. Variation in scent-marking was analyzed with respect to site preferences, sex differences, onset of breeding, behavioral correlates, and environmental factors. Both males and females exhibited significant preferences for particular marking sites, those being prominent points in the enclosures. Males showed significantly higher scent-marking frequencies than females, except in one enclosure where increased marking behavior was associated with the presence of young. Sexual dimorphism in the pattern of marking was also observed, with males showing a bidirectional mark and females a unidirectional mark. Female marking was greater during the breeding season. Sniffing and number of waddles per mark were associated with scent-marking. Temperature change was not related to frequency of scent-marking. These results are compared with scent-marking behaviors in other species of carnivores and functional explanations are suggested.     

Sampling of Protein Dynamics in Nanosecond Time Scale by 15N NMR Relaxation and Self-Diffusion Measurements

Abstract

This paper presents a procedure for detection of intermediate nanosecond internal dynamics in globular proteins. The procedure uses ¹H-¹⁵N relaxation measurements at several spectrometer frequencies and hydrodynamic calculations based on experimental self-diffusion coefficients. New heteronuclear experiments, using pulse field gradients, are introduced for the measurement of translation diffusion coefficients of ¹⁵N labeled proteins. An advanced interpretation of recently published (Luginbühl et al., Biochemistry, 36, 7305–7312 (1997)) backbone amide ¹⁵N relaxation data, measured at two spectrometers (400 and 750 MHz for ¹H) for N-terminal DNA-binding domain (1–63) of 434 repressor, is presented. Non-applicability of commonly used fast (picosecond) dynamics model (FD) was justified by (i) poor fit of relaxation data by the FD model-free spectral density function both for isotropic and anisotropic models of the overall molecular tumbling; (ii) specific dependence of the overall rotation correlation times calculated from T₁/T₂ ratio on the spectrometer frequency; (iii) mismatch of the ratio of longitudinal ¹⁵N relaxation times T₁, measured at different spectrometer frequencies, in comparison with that anticipated for the IT) model; (iv) significantly underestimated overall rotation correlation time provided by the FD model (5.50±0.15 and 5.80±0.15 ns for 750 and 400 MHz spectrometer frequency respectively) in comparison with correlation time obtained from hydrodynamics. On the other hand, all relaxation and hydrodynamics data are in good correspondence with the model of intermediate (nanoseconds) dynamics. Overall rotation correlation time of 7.5±0.7 ns was calculated from experimental translation self-diffusion rate using hydrodynamics formalism (Garcia de la Torre, J. and Bloomfield, V.A. Quart. Rev. Biophys., 14, 81–139 (1981)). The statistical analysis of ¹⁵N relaxation data along with the hydrodynamic consideration clearly revealed that most of the residues in 434(1–63) repressor are involved in the nanosecond internal dynamics characterized by the the mean order parameters of 0.59±0.06 and the correlation times of ca. 5 ns.     

Black and white under the South African sun: are juvenile Cape gannets heat stressed?

(1) We measured dorsal surface temperature (T_d), skin temperature (T_s) and body temperature (T_b) of adult (white plumage) and juvenile (black plumage) Cape gannets, Morus capensis, subject to high ambient temperatures. (2) Mean T_d and T_b of juveniles were significantly elevated compared to those of adults. (3) Mean T_s of older juveniles, which had down beneath their body feathers, were significantly lower than T_s of younger juveniles, indicating that the down provided insulation. (4) Juveniles spent a significantly greater proportion of time thermoregulating via evaporative cooling than adults. (5) The high thermal load of the dark plumage is presumably associated with major costs for the thermal and water balance of juveniles.     

300 MHz proton NMR study of the differentiation of diploid human epidermal keratinocytes

The nuclear magnetic resonance spin-lattice (T₁) and spin-spin (T₂) relaxation times are closely related to the molecular motions of the molecules in a liquid sample. T₁ and T₂ of human epidermal cells were measured at 300 MHz as functions of harvesting methods (i.e., scraping vs trypsinization) and age in culture. It was found that T₁ and T₂ values have smaller variances when the cell is harvested by trypsinization rather than scraping. The correlation coefficients for both T₁ and T₂, obtained from cells harvested by trypsinization, are much higher than those obtained from cells harvested by scraping. More importantly, this is the first report to monitor in vitro aging through relaxation times measurement. There is a significant increase in the values of T₁ and T₂ from the third to seventh passages. Human keratinocytes slowed down and even ceased to grow the seventh passage. Therefore, the cellular water molecules of human keratinocytes have higher mobility in a more differentiated state. The factors contributing to the change in relaxation times as cells progress toward senescence are discussed.     

Measuring core body temperature with a non-invasive sensor

In various occupations, workers may be exposed to extreme environmental conditions and physical activities. Under these conditions the ability to follow the workers' body temperature may protect them from overheating that may lead to heat related injuries. The "Dräger" Double Sensor (DS) is a novel device for assessing body-core temperature (T_c). The purpose of this study was to evaluate the accuracy of the DS in measuring T_c under heat stress. Seventeen male participants performed a three stage protocol: 30 min rest in a thermal comfort environment (20–22 °C, 50% relative humidity), followed by an exposure to a hot environment of 40 °C, 40% relative humidity −30 min at rest and 60 min of exercise (walking on a treadmill at 5 km/h and 2% elevation). Simultaneously temperatures measured by the DS (T_DS) and by rectal temperature (T_re) (YSI-401 thermistor) were recorded and then compared. During the three stages of the study the average temperature obtained by the DS was within±0.3 °C of rectal measurement. The correlation between T_DS and T_re was significantly better during the heat exposures phases than during resting under comfort conditions. These preliminary results are promising for potential use of the DS by workers under field conditions and especially under environmental heat stress or when dressed in protective garments. For this goal, further investigations are required to validate the accuracy of the DS under various levels of heat stress, clothing and working levels.     

Biological evaluation of running waters in Korea, with special reference to bioassessment using the PFU system

A total of six stations in the Han River system were selected for establishing polyurethane foam units (PFUs) to collect protozoans, including phytomastigophorans, zoomastigophorans, amoebas and ciliates, in July 1993. In the bioassessment of microbial communities using the PFUs, the number of species decreased as pollution intensity increased. The diversity index values calculated at the main stations generally agreed with the pollution status of the stations. Anyang-Chon (Chon means stream) showed the lowest diversity value (1.89), and all stations, except Masok and Anyang-Chon, showed diversity index values ranging from 3.15 to 3.93. The highest heterotrophic index (HI) value was detected in Anyang-Chon followed by Masok-Chon. The number of species at the main stations reached a maximum on day 11 of being exposed to PFUs. The results of _eq, G and T_90% all suggest that bioassessments using the PFU system were well matched with pollution status of the water. All microbial variables were significantly correlated with comprehensive chemical pollution indices, P_a and P_b , with correlation coefficients ranging from r =0.87 to r=0.96. This revised version was published online in July 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

Direct observation of the properties of cholesterol in membranes by deuterium NMR

The properties of cholesterol in bilayers of egg phosphatidylcholine (PC) were investigated directly by means of ²H-NMR of specifically-deuterated species (C3, C7, C26, C27). Quadrupole splittings were a measure of molecular ordering, and relaxation times T₁ and T_2e were indicators of rates of motion. The importance of the use of echoes for spectral acquisition is emphasised, particularly to obtain accurate values of the quadrupole splitting. In the case of overlapping powder patterns from two labelled positions, the use of the absolute value mode of spectral presentation is shown to yield reasonable estimates of the individual quadrupole splittings. Spectral properties were monitored as a function of cholesterol concentration and temperature. Increasing cholesterol concentration led to a high degree of ordering for the rigid ring system of cholesterol, approaching a molecular order parameter of 0.8 at 50 mol% cholesterol. The isopropyl methyl groups were in all cases less ordered anmore mobile than the ring system, but responded in a similar fashion to variable cholesterol concentration and temperature. The observation of a minimum in the temperature dependence of T₁ for cholesterol-7,7-d₂ led to a direct estimate of its correlation time for molecular motion, 3.5 × 10^?9 s rad^?1. This indicates that the overall rate of motion of cholesterol is considerably slower than that of the lipids in which it is located. The short T_2e values suggest that the motional spectrum of cholesterol is rich in low frequencies. The parallel temperature and cholesterol dependences of quadrupole splittings for different positions on the rigid ring system of cholesterol indicate that the position of the axis of motional averaging of the molecule is not changing, and is the same as that determined in an earlier study. It is emphasised that the steep temperature dependence and small quadrupole splittings for the chain isopropyl methyl groups of cholesterol do not necessarily indicate a high degree of disorder, but may be due to their axes of motional averaging lying at angles close to 54° with respect to the director of the ordered lipids.     

Postural control in healthy young adults using a double seesaw device

Postural control on single and double seesaws was investigated in young healthy adults required to stand as still as possible on two side-by-side seesaws favoring pitch motion and lying on two separate force platforms. The device offers the possibility to get associated or dissociated seesaws and, if dissociated, to induce asymmetric patterns for the centers-of-pressure (CP) under both left and right feet by using different radii for the two seesaws. Substituting a parallelepiped volume to one seesaw offering a firm contact to one foot is also possible. The results indicated that dissociating the two seesaws led to increased resultant CP (CP_Res) and vertically projected center-of-gravity movements (CG_v) only along the mediolateral axis, whereas a slight decreasing tendency characterized these movements along the antero-posterior axis. When standing on two independent seesaws with different radii, significantly larger CP displacements were seen along the antero-posterior axis under the foot lying on the more stable support, i.e., the seesaw with the longer radius or the parallelepiped volume. In these two asymmetrical conditions, the CP_Res output results from a compensatory mechanism, i.e. larger movements under one foot to compensate for the decreased movements occurring under the opposite foot. This postural control strategy is aimed at allowing sufficient CP_Res displacements in order to appropriately secure balance. Because of the complex sensorimotor coordination induced, involving differentially in certain cases both legs, the double seesaw device can be viewed as a possible tool for challenging postural control by inducing asymmetrical patterns between left and right feet CP movements.     

Improvement of thermal comfort indices in agroforestry systems in the southern Brazilian Amazon

Agroforestry systems can minimize heat stress and improve cattle welfare, but the influence of the forest component in microclimatic changes in the southern Amazon remains unclear. This study aimed to compare the thermal comfort indices in grass monoculture and integrated systems. The three systems were pasture under full sunlight (PFS), integrated (triple-row) livestock-forestry (ILF_T), and integrated (single-row) livestock-forestry (ILFs), across four seasons, for two years, from June 2017 to June 2019. We assessed photosynthetically active radiation (PAR), air temperature, relative humidity, black globe temperature, and wind speed. Thermal comfort indices such as temperature-humidity index (THI), black globe temperature-humidity index (BGHI), and radiant thermal load (RTL) were calculated based on microclimate data daily-collected from 8:00 to 16:00. The ILF_T mean THI (76.8) was slightly lower than ILF_S and PFS. The BGHI and RTL values decreased as shading increased (PFS > ILFs > ILF_T). The most challenging heat stress conditions for grazing animals occurred predominately during winter and autumn. In conclusion, the presence of trees in pastures of the southern Amazon improved the microclimate and, consequently, the thermal comfort indices. Agroforestry systems can foster an environment with a more suitable thermal comfort or less restrictive to animal performance, which contribute to mitigating global climate change for forage-livestock systems in Brazilian Amazon.     

Development of a novel stall design for dairy cattle: Part II. The effect of minimal stall partitioning on lying behavior,rumination, stall cleanliness,and preference

Free-stalls for dairy cows promote cleanliness, provide cows with a defined space to lie down, and decrease labor and bedding required for maintenance. However, current stall features can restrict behavior and reduce stall use. The objective of this study was to assess the short-term effect of a novel free-stall design (flexible single-bar partition, no neck rail, increased slope) on stall cleanliness and the lying behavior, rumination, milk production, and preferences of dairy cows in comparison to standard free-stalls (metal loop partitions, neck rail). In the first experiment, 60 Holstein cows were randomly divided into two groups and switched between standard and novel stalls in a replicated crossover design with four 7-day periods. Lying behavior and rumination were recorded continuously. Milk yields were recorded 2x/day, and stall cleanliness scores were collected on the last four days of weeks 3 and 4. The second experiment was a 6-day preference test where 14 cows from experiment 1 were given free access to 16 standard and 16 novel stalls. Lying behavior was recorded continuously. On day 6, standing, perching, and intention, lying, and rising movements were recorded. In experiment 1, cows spent 12 min less time lying down (14.1 vs 14.3 ± 0.48 h/d), had one fewer lying bouts (8.8 vs 9.8 ± 0.23 bouts/d), and had longer lying bouts by 6 min (1.4 vs 1.5 ± 0.05 h/bout) in novel stalls. Rumination time (547.3 vs 548.9 ± 4.66 min/d) and milk yield (35.0 vs 35.2 ± 0.51 kg/d) did not differ between stall types. However, novel stalls were more than twice as soiled as standard stalls (32.8 vs 14.2 ± 1.38% of rear half soiled). In experiment 2, the cows most recently housed in the novel stalls showed a clear preference for lying down in those stalls, whereas cows most recently housed in standard stalls showed no preference. Intention and lying down movements were longer in standard stalls when other cows were present in diagonally opposite stalls, but were similar between stall types when not occupied. All cows preferred standing in novel stalls. Novel stalls may have improved stall use compared to standard free-stalls, and the design requires further development to address cleanliness concerns. Future work is required to provide comfortable stalls without sacrificing cleanliness.     

Systemic Inflammation in Progressive Multiple Sclerosis Involves Follicular T-Helper,Th17- and Activated B-Cells and Correlates with Progression

Pathology studies of progressive multiple sclerosis (MS) indicate a major role of inflammation including Th17-cells and meningeal inflammation with ectopic lymphoid follicles, B-cells and plasma cells, the latter indicating a possible role of the newly identified subset of follicular T-helper (T_FH) cells. Although previous studies reported increased systemic inflammation in progressive MS it remains unclear whether systemic inflammation contributes to disease progression and intrathecal inflammation. This study aimed to investigate systemic inflammation in progressive MS and its relationship with disease progression, using flow cytometry and gene expression analysis of CD4⁺ and CD8⁺T-cells, B-cells, monocytes and dendritic cells. Furthermore, gene expression of cerebrospinal fluid cells was studied. Flow cytometry studies revealed increased frequencies of ICOS⁺T_FH-cells in peripheral blood from relapsing-remitting (RRMS) and secondary progressive (SPMS) MS patients. All MS subtypes had decreased frequencies of Th1 T_FH-cells, while primary progressive (PPMS) MS patients had increased frequency of Th17 T_FH-cells. The Th17-subset, interleukin-23-receptor⁺CD4⁺T-cells, was significantly increased in PPMS and SPMS. In the analysis of B-cells, we found a significant increase of plasmablasts and DC-SIGN⁺ and CD83⁺B-cells in SPMS. ICOS⁺T_FH-cells and DC-SIGN⁺B-cells correlated with disease progression in SPMS patients. Gene expression analysis of peripheral blood cell subsets substantiated the flow cytometry findings by demonstrating increased expression of IL21, IL21R and ICOS in CD4⁺T-cells in progressive MS. Cerebrospinal fluid cells from RRMS and progressive MS (pooled SPMS and PPMS patients) had increased expression of T_FH-cell and plasmablast markers. In conclusion, this study is the first to demonstrate the potential involvement of activated T_FH-cells in MS. The increased frequencies of Th17-cells, activated T_FH- and B-cells parallel findings from pathology studies which, along with the correlation between activated T_FH- and B-cells and disease progression, suggest a pathogenic role of systemic inflammation in progressive MS. These observations may have implications for the treatment of progressive MS.