Television Viewing Is Not Predictive of BMI in Black and Hispanic Young Adult Females

Previous studies have observed that television (TV) viewing is predictive of obesity and weight gain. We examined whether the cross‐sectional association between TV viewing and BMI varied by racial/ethnic subgroups among young women in Wave III (collected in 2001–2002) of the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health. We used multivariate linear regression to examine the relationship between TV viewing and BMI among 6,049 females while controlling for sociodemographic and health attributes. We stratified the sample by race/ethnicity to better understand the association between TV viewing and BMI across different groups. Black and Hispanic females had higher BMIs (black: 28.5 kg/m², Hispanic: 27.3 kg/m², white: 26.0 kg/m²) than white females, while black females reported higher numbers of hours spent watching TV (black: 14.7 h/week, Hispanic: 10.6 h/week, white: 11.2 h/week) when compared to their white and Hispanic peers. TV viewing was positively associated with BMI (β = 0.79, P = 0.003 for 8–14 vs. ≤7 h/week; β = 1.18, P = 0.01 for >14 vs. ≤7 h/week) independent of race/ethnicity, age, maternal education, history of pregnancy, parental obesity, and household income. However, in models stratified by race/ethnicity, increased TV viewing was associated with increased BMI only among white females; TV viewing was not predictive of higher BMI in black or Hispanic young adult females. Among black and Hispanic females, counseling to decrease TV viewing may be important but insufficient for promoting weight loss.     

A possible dominant white gene in Jersey cattle

A white heifer ("Snow") was born in 1991 from coloured registered Jersey parents. She produced six calves sired by coloured Jersey bulls: three white bull calves, two white heifer calves, and one coloured bull calf. One of the white bull calves was mated with 40 Hereford × Friesian yearling heifers (white face, predominantly black body with some white patches). The 38 resulting calves included 16 white and 22 coloured calves. Twelve of the 16 white calves were heifers and four were bulls. Red or black spotting was recorded on some white calves. The results are consistent with an autosomal dominant mutant causing the white phenotype. The mutation appears to have arisen spontaneously in Snow, then passing to her white progeny and white grand-progeny. The white individuals varied from entirely white in a few cases, to most having some residual small areas of red or black pigmentation in patterns not typical of other reported white spotting patterns of cattle.     

Impact of patient-doctor race concordance on rates of weight-related counseling in visits by black and white obese individuals

The objective of this study was to assess the impact of patient-provider race concordance on weight-related counseling among visits by obese patients. We hypothesized that race concordance would be positively associated with weight-related counseling. We used clinical encounter data obtained from the 2005-2007 National Ambulatory Medical Care Surveys (NAMCS). The sample size included 2,231 visits of black and white obese individuals (ages 20 and older) to their black and white physicians from the specialties of general/family practice and general internal medicine. Three outcome measures of weight-related counseling were explored: weight reduction, diet/nutrition, and exercise. Logistic regression was used to model the outcome variables of interest. Wald tests were used to statistically compare whether physicians of each race provided counseling at different rates for obese patients of different races. We did not observe a positive association between patient-physician race concordance and weight-related counseling. We found that visits by black obese patients to white doctors had a lower odds of exercise counseling as compared to visits by white obese patients to white doctors (odds ratio (OR) = 0.54; 95% confidence interval (CI): 0.31, 0.95), and visits by black obese patients to black physicians had lower odds of receiving weight-reduction counseling than visits among white obese patients seeing black physicians (OR = 0.34; 95% CI: 0.13, 0.90). Black obese patients receive less exercise counseling than white obese patients in visits to white physicians and may be less likely than white obese patients to receive weight-reduction counseling in visits to black physicians.     

Visibility of movement gradients

We report on the sensitivity of human observers with respect to the detection of transients in otherwise uniformly moving two-dimensional random-dot patterns. The target field is divided into two halfs that each contains a moving random-dot pattern. The patterns in the two halffields are mutually uncorrelated. Parameters are the average velocity and the difference-velocity for the two halfs. These velocities are both vectors that can be varied in magnitude and in their direction with respect to the border of the two halffields. In order to quantify the sensitivity of the visual system to such patterns, we added (linear addition) spatio-temporal white noise (snow) to the pattern. Then the sensitivity is quantified by way of the threshold signal-to-noise ratio necessary to discriminate the composite pattern from a single smoothly uniformly moving pattern. The signal-to-noise ratio specifies the square of the ratio between the signal r.m.s. contrast and the r.m.s. contrast of the masking stimulus (spatio-temporal white noise or snow). The r.m.s. contrast of the complex pattern (signal and noise) is kept invariant. We find that the detection performance is independent of the direction of either the average or difference-velocity with respect to the border, and can be completely described in terms of a minimum requirement for the magnitude of the difference-velocity. The magnitude of the difference-velocity must exceed the magnitude of the average velocity in order to lead to a perceivable transient. In his formulation the Weberlaw for the detection of velocity transients in uniformly moving noise patterns is applicable to both differences in magnitude and direction of the velocities.     

Polygenic Risk Predicts Obesity in Both White and Black Young Adults

Objective

To test transethnic replication of a genetic risk score for obesity in white and black young adults using a national sample with longitudinal data.

Design and Methods

A prospective longitudinal study using the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health Sibling Pairs (n = 1,303). Obesity phenotypes were measured from anthropometric assessments when study members were aged 18–26 and again when they were 24–32. Genetic risk scores were computed based on published genome-wide association study discoveries for obesity. Analyses tested genetic associations with body-mass index (BMI), waist-height ratio, obesity, and change in BMI over time.

Results

White and black young adults with higher genetic risk scores had higher BMI and waist-height ratio and were more likely to be obese compared to lower genetic risk age-peers. Sibling analyses revealed that the genetic risk score was predictive of BMI net of risk factors shared by siblings. In white young adults only, higher genetic risk predicted increased risk of becoming obese during the study period. In black young adults, genetic risk scores constructed using loci identified in European and African American samples had similar predictive power.

Conclusion

Cumulative information across the human genome can be used to characterize individual level risk for obesity. Measured genetic risk accounts for only a small amount of total variation in BMI among white and black young adults. Future research is needed to identify modifiable environmental exposures that amplify or mitigate genetic risk for elevated BMI.     

Learning and discrimination of colored papers in jumping spiders (Araneae, Salticidae)

Color discrimination in jumping spiders Hasarius adansoni was examined by heat-avoidance learning in association with colored papers. The arena for the experiment was divided into two halves by a pair of colored papers. The colored papers used in this study were blue, green, yellow, red, white, gray and black. In training sessions, one half of the arena was heated from the bottom by a hot plate, and freely walking spiders were individually trained to avoid the heated half. In subsequent memory tests without heat, they consistently avoided the heat-associated colored papers. We found that jumping spiders could learn blue-green, blue-yellow, blue-red, blue-gray, green-yellow, green-red, green-gray, yellow-red, yellow-gray and red-gray patterns. Moreover, spiders trained with a blue-white pattern, a green-white pattern, a yellow-white pattern or a red-white pattern could discriminate the blue, green, yellow or red from black. It seems that jumping spiders can discriminate the blue, green, yellow and red papers by their hue, although brightness may also be used together with the color cue to discriminate colored papers.     

Fine nanostructural variation in the wing pattern of a moth <Emphasis Type="Italic">Chiasmia eleonora</Emphasis> Cramer (1780)

Butterflies and moths possess diverse patterns on their wings. Butterflies employ miscellaneous colour in the wings whereas moths use a combination of dull colours like white, grey, brown and black for the patterning of their wings. The exception is some of the toxic diurnal moths which possess bright wing colouration. Moths possess an obscure pattern in the dorsal part of the wings which may be a line, zigzag or swirl. Such patterns help in camouflage during resting period. Thus, the dorsal wing pattern of the moth is used for both intra- as well as inter-specific signal communication. Chiasmia eleonora is a nocturnal moth of greyish black colouration. The dorsal hindwing possesses yellow and black colour patches. A white-coloured oblique line crosses both left and right fore- and hindwings to form a V-shaped pattern across the dorsal wing. This V-shaped pattern possesses a UV signal. Closer to the body, the colour appears darker, which fades towards the margin. The fine nanostructural variation is observed throughout the wings. This study elucidates the wing pattern of the geometrid moth C. eleonora using high-resolution microscopy techniques that has not been described in previous studies.     

Pattern vision of the honeybee (Apis mellifera). What is an oriented edge?

Pairs of black patterns on a white background, one rewarded the other not, were presented vertically each in one arm of a Y-maze. During training the locations of the black areas were changed every 5 min to prevent the bees using them as cues, but cues from edges were kept consistent. Bees detect orientation even in a gradient that subtends 36° from black to white (normal to the edge). Orientation cues in short lengths of edge are detected and summed on each side of the fixation point, irrespective of the lay-out of the pattern. Edges at right angles reduce the total orientation cue. The polarity of edges in a sawtooth grating is weakly discriminated, but not the orientation of a fault line where two gratings meet. Edge quality can be discriminated, but is not recognised in unfamiliar orientations. When spot location is excluded as a cue, the orientation of a row of spots or squares which individually provide no net orientation cue is not discriminated. In conclusion, when locations of black areas are shuffled, the bees remember the sum of local orientation cues but not the global pattern, and there is no re-assembly of a pattern based on differently oriented edges. A neuronal model consistent with these results is presented. Accepted: 5 March 2000     

Ethnic Differences in Physical Activity and Inactivity Patterns and Overweight Status

Objective: To examine the relationship between physical activity and inactivity patterns and overweight in U.S. adolescents using baseline and 1-year change in activity and inactivity data. Research Methods and Procedures: Nationally representative data from 12,759 participants (6997 non-Hispanic whites, 2676 non-Hispanic blacks, 2185 Hispanics, and 901 Asians) in the National Longitudinal Study of Adolescent Health (1995 and 1996). Data on moderate to vigorous and low-intensity physical activity, TV/video viewing, and video game/computer use were obtained from questionnaires. Multivariate models assessed the association of overweight (body mass index ≥ 95th percentile Centers for Disease Control and Prevention/National Center for Health Statistics 2000 curves) with initial (and 1-year change) activity and inactivity levels, controlling for age, ethnicity, socioeconomic status, urban residence, cigarette smoking, and region of residence. Results: Overweight prevalence was positively associated with high level TV/video viewing among white boys (odds ratio [OR] = 1.52; 95% confidence interval [1.08 to 2.14]) and girls (OR = 2.45 [1.51 to 3.97]). The odds of overweight decreased with high levels of moderate to vigorous physical activity among white boys (OR = 0.81 [0.76 to 0.87]), non-Hispanic black boys (OR = 0.86 [0.76 to 0.98]) and girls (OR = 0.88 [0.78 to 0.99]), and Hispanic boys (OR = 0.90 [0.83 to 0.97]) and girls (OR = 0.91 [0.84 to 0.99]). Discussion: Predicted probabilities generated from the logistic regression models, which examined the experimental effects of altering hours of TV/video viewing and bouts of moderate to vigorous physical activity, show lower overweight among adolescents who watched less TV per week combined with frequent moderate to vigorous physical activity than those who watched more TV per week combined with fewer bouts of weekly moderate to vigorous physical activity. Predicted probabilities suggest important sex and ethnic differences in these associations.     

Pattern vision of the honeybee (Apis mellifera): the effect of pattern on the discrimination of location

This paper investigates how the pattern influences the discrimination of different locations of two or more areas of black, white or colour. The coloured patterns were made from two calibrated coloured papers that give contrast only to green receptors, or alternatively only to blue receptors. The patterns are fixed during training. It is found that the discrimination of translocation of two areas of colour involves green receptors and also blue receptors, and the resolution depends strongly on the pattern. Patterns that offer horizontal strips and up-down differences in locations are well resolved, even with no green contrast. Resolution of left-right reversal is greatly improved when the patterns promote fixation in the horizontal plane, as if green contrast is essential to stabilize the eye in yaw. The addition of radial bars with green contrast, a central black spot or a black surround, is particularly effective. The additions promote fixation, and would aid the detection of natural symmetrical objects. Accepted: 30 May 1999     

Mechanisms of black and white stripe pattern formation in the cuticles of insect larvae

Molecular mechanisms that produce pigment patterns in the insect cuticle were studied. Larvae of the armyworm Pseudaletia separata have stripe patterns that run longitudinally along the body axis. The pattern in the cuticle became clear by being emphasized by the increasing contrast between the black and white colors of the lines after the last larval molt. We demonstrated that dopa decarboxylase (DDC) mRNA as well as protein are expressed specifically in the epidermal cells under the black stripes. The pigmentation on the stripes was clearly diminished by injection of a DDC inhibitor (m-hydroxybenzylhydrazine) to penultimate instar larvae for 1 day before molting, suggesting that DDC contributes to the production of melanin. Further, electron microscopic observation showed that the epidermal cells under the gap cuticle region (white stripe) between the black stripes contain many uric acid granules, which gives a white color. Our findings suggest that the spatially regulated expression of DDC in the epidermal cells produces the black stripes while abundant granules of uric acid in the cells generate the white stripes in the cuticle. Based on these results, we concluded that this heterogeneity in the epidermal cells forms cuticular stripe patterns in the armyworm larvae.     

Black and White Women in Maryland Receive Different Treatment for Cervical Cancer

Purpose

Despite an overall decrease in incidence, the death rate from cervical cancer in the United States remains higher in black women than their white counterparts. We examined the Maryland Cancer Registry (MCR) to determine treatment factors that may explain differences in outcomes between races in the state of Maryland.

Methods

Incident cervical cancers in the MCR 1992–2008 were examined. Demographics, tumor characteristics and treatments were compared between races and over time.

Results

Our analysis included 2034 (1301 white, 733 black) patients. Black women were more likely to have locally advanced or metastatic disease at diagnosis (p<0.01). They were more likely to receive any radiation or chemotherapy combined with radiation and less likely to receive surgery (p<0.01). When adjusted for stage and insurance status black women had 1.50 (95% CI 1.20–1.87) times the odds of receiving radiation and 1.43 (95% CI 1.11–1.82) times the odds of receiving chemotherapy. Black women with cervical cancer had 0.51 times the adjusted odds (95% CI 0.41–0.65) of receiving surgery compared to white women. Racial differences in treatment did not change significantly over time.

Conclusions

Surgical treatment for newly diagnosed cervical cancer in the state of Maryland was significantly less common amongst black women than white during our study period. Equivalent treatments are not being administered to white and black patients with cervical cancer in Maryland. Differences in care may contribute to racial disparities in outcomes for women with cervical cancer.     

The influence of long-term chromatic adaptation on pigment cells and striped pigment patterns in the skin of the zebrafish, Danio rerio

The striped pigment patterns in the flanks of zebrafish result from chromatophores deep within the dermis or hypodermis, while superficial melanophores associated with dermal scales add a dark tint to the dorsal coloration. The responses of these chromatophores were compared during the long-term adaptation of zebrafish to a white or a black background. In superficial skin, melanophores, xanthophores, and two types of iridophores are distributed in a gradient along the dorso-ventral axis independent of the hypodermal pigment patterns. Within one week the superficial melanophores and iridophores changed their density and/or areas of distribution, which adopted the dorsal skin color and the hue of the flank to the background, but did not affect the striped pattern. The increases or decreases in superficial melanophores are thought to be caused by apoptosis or by differentiation, respectively. When the adaptation period was prolonged for more than several months, the striped color pattern was also affected by changes in the width of the black stripes. Some black stripes disappeared and interstripe areas were emphasized with a yellow color within one year on a white background. Such long-term alteration in the pigment pattern was caused by a decrease in the distribution of melanophores and a concomitant increase in xanthophores in the hypodermis. These results indicate that morphological responses of superficial chromatophores contribute to the effective and rapid background adaptation of dorsal skin and while prolonged adaptation also affects hypodermal chromatophores in the flank to alter the striped pigment patterns.     

Associations between physical activity and bone mass in black and white South African children at age 9 yr.

We investigated differences in physical activity (PA) levels between black and white South African 9-yr-old children and their association with bone mineral content (BMC) and density (BMD) by using dual-energy X-ray absorptiometry. PA was analyzed in terms of a metabolic (METPA; weighted metabolic score of intensity, frequency, and duration) and a mechanical (MECHPA; sum of all ground reaction forces multiplied by duration) component. There were significant ethnic differences in patterns of activity. White children expended a significantly greater energy score (METPA of 21.7 +/- 2.9) than black children (METPA of 9.5 +/- 0.5) (P < 0.001). When children were divided into quartiles according to the amount and intensity of sport played, the most active white children (using METPA scores) had significantly higher whole body BMD and higher hip and spine BMC and BMD than less active children. White children in the highest MECHPA quartile also showed significantly higher whole body, hip, and spine BMC and BMD than those children in the lowest quartile. No association between exercise and bone mass of black children was found. In this population, PA has an osteogenic association with white children, but not black children, which may be explained by the lower levels of PA in the black children. Despite this, black children had significantly greater bone mass at the hip and spine (girls only) (P < 0.001) even after adjustment for body size. The role of exercise in increasing bone mass may become increasingly critical as a protective mechanism against osteoporosis in both ethnic groups, especially because the genetic benefit exhibited by black children to higher bone mass may be weakened with time, as environmental influences become stronger.     

Racial Differences in the Tracking of Childhood BMI to Adulthood

Objective: The possibility that there are racial differences in the patterns of BMI (kilograms per meter squared) change throughout life has not been examined. For example, the high prevalence of obesity among black women could result from a higher prevalence of obesity among black girls or because normal‐weight black girls experience larger BMI increases in adolescence or adulthood than do their white counterparts. Therefore, we examined the tracking of childhood BMI into adulthood in a biracial (36% black) sample. Research Methods and Procedures: Five‐ to 14‐year‐old children (2392) were followed for (mean) 17 years. Childhood overweight was defined as BMI ≥ 95th percentile, and adult obesity was defined as BMI ≥ 30 kg/m². Results: The tracking of childhood BMI differed between whites and blacks. Among overweight children, 65% of white girls vs. 84% of black girls became obese adults, and predictive values among boys were 71% (whites) vs. 82% (blacks). These racial differences reflected contrasting patterns in the rate of BMI change. Although the initial BMI of black children was not higher than that of white children, BMI increases with age were larger among black girls and overweight black boys than among their white counterparts. In contrast, relatively thin (BMI < 50th percentile) white boys were more likely to become overweight adults than were their black counterparts. Discussion: These findings emphasize the black/white differences in BMI changes with age. Because of the adult health consequences of childhood‐onset obesity, early prevention should be given additional emphasis.     

Inheritance of the harlequin color in Great Dane dogs

The harlequin color pattern of Great Dane dogs differs from merle in that the background is white instead of blue. Harlequin by harlequin matings produced 60 black, 77 harlequin, 42 merle, and 35 homozygous merle pups. Harlequin by black matings produced 44 black, 26 harlequin, 25 merle, and one white (homozygous merle?) pups. All harlequins produced some merles. These data best fit the hypothesis that harlequin is a modification of merle (Mm) caused by an autosomal dominant mutation that is lethal to homozygotes, and to about half of heterozygotes when combined with the MM genotype. The symbol H is proposed for this mutation.     

The skin pattern of young plaice and its rapid modification in response to graded changes in background tint and pattern

Young plaice, kept on a standard background and trained for 3–4 weeks, were photographed to record short-term nervously controlled responses to plain grey and patterned backgrounds, graded and quantitatively defined with regard to reflectivity and dimensions. Systems of primary, secondary and lower-order black and white spots and flecks became prominent or hidden in hierarchical order. Spots at any one level in a hierarchy were approximately evenly distributed. Black spots enlarged with increased size or number of black circles in the background but responded differently to unpatterned grey backgrounds. White spots had a centre and surrounding annulus both of which could be pale or independently variably occluded centrally, peripherally or overall. Peripheral occlusion of the annuli contributed to skin darkening and by extending inwards to include the centre it progressively diminished the white spots. The system of white spots was responsible for the smaller skin patterns, the finest being produced through disruption by the white flecks of the annuli, black spots and dark patches. There was great variation in response of individuals. Erratic and poor background responses were generally associated with abnormalities in the white spots.     

Color pattern analysis of nymphalid butterfly wings: revision of the nymphalid groundplan

To better understand the developmental mechanisms of color pattern variation in butterfly wings, it is important to construct an accurate representation of pattern elements, known as the "nymphalid groundplan". However, some aspects of the current groundplan remain elusive. Here, I examined wing-wide elemental patterns of various nymphalid butterflies and confirmed that wing-wide color patterns are composed of the border, central, and basal symmetry systems. The central and basal symmetry systems can express circular patterns resembling eyespots, indicating that these systems have developmental mechanisms similar to those of the border symmetry system. The wing root band commonly occurs as a distinct symmetry system independent from the basal symmetry system. In addition, the marginal and submarginal bands are likely generated as a single system, referred to as the "marginal band system". Background spaces between two symmetry systems are sometimes light in coloration and can produce white bands, contributing significantly to color pattern diversity. When an element is enlarged with a pale central area, a visually similar (yet developmentally distinct) white band is produced. Based on the symmetric relationships of elements, I propose that both the central and border symmetry systems are comprised of "core elements" (the discal spot and the border ocelli, respectively) and a pair of "paracore elements" (the distal and proximal bands and the parafocal elements, respectively). Both core and paracore elements can be doubled, or outlined. Developmentally, this system configuration is consistent with the induction model, but not with the concentration gradient model for positional information.