Relationship of dietary intake of fish and non-fish selenium to serum lipids in Japanese rural coastal community.

Several studies have suggested that dietary selenium deficiency may be associated with an increased risk of coronary heart disease (CHD). In the present study, 55 men and 71 women were selected from participants in a health examination in a rural coastal community in Japan. The mean dietary selenium intake calculated from the simple food frequency questionnaire (SFFQ) was 127.5 micrograms/day. Fish was the major source of dietary selenium and it contributed to 68.7% of the daily total. HDL cholesterol was higher in the middle selenium intake group and in the high selenium intake group than in the low selenium intake group in all subjects and for males, and a significant difference was found between the middle selenium intake group and the low selenium intake group. The atherogenic index was significantly higher in the low selenium intake group than in the middle selenium intake group and in the high selenium intake group in males. GPx activity, total cholesterol and triacylglycerols did not show any significant differences among the three different selenium intake groups. Dietary intake of non-fish Se had a positive correlation with HDL cholesterol, and an inverse correlation with the atherogenic index in all subjects and for females. On the other hand, dietary intake of fish-Se had no relationship with any serum lipids. Non-fish Se is an important factor in selenium status for the prevention of CHD.     

Contribution of dietary arginine to nitrogen utilisation and excretion in juvenile sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) fed diets differing in protein source

The role of dietary arginine in affecting nitrogen utilisation and excretion was studied in juvenile European sea bass (Dicentrarchus labrax) fed for 72 days with diets differing in protein sources (plant protein-based (PM) and fish-meal-based (FM)). Fish growth performance and nitrogen utilisation revealed that dietary Arg surplus was beneficial only in PM diets. Dietary Arg level significantly affected postprandial plasma urea concentrations. Hepatic arginase activity increased (P<0.05) in response to dietary Arg surplus in fish fed plant protein diets; conversely ornithine transcarbamylase activity was very low and inversely related to arginine intake. No hepatic carbamoyl phosphate synthetase III activity was detected. Dietary arginine levels did not affect glutamate dehydrogenase activity. A strong linear relationship was found between liver arginase activity and daily urea-N excretion. Dietary Arg excess reduced the proportion of total ammonia nitrogen excreted and increased the contribution of urea-N over the total N excretion irrespective of dietary protein source. Plasma and excretion data combined with enzyme activities suggest that dietary Arg degradation via hepatic arginase is a major pathway for ureagenesis and that ornithine-urea cycle is not completely functional in juvenile sea bass liver.     

Flavonoid intake and coronary mortality in Finland: a cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To study the association between dietary intake of flavonoids and subsequent coronary mortality. DESIGN: A cohort study based on data collected at the Finnish mobile clinic health examination survey from 1967-72 and followed up until 1992. SETTINGS: 30 communities from different parts of Finland. SUBJECTS: 5133 Finnish men and women aged 30-69 years and free from heart disease at baseline. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURE: Dietary intake of flavonoids, total mortality, and coronary mortality. RESULTS: In women a significant inverse gradient was observed between dietary intake of flavonoids and total and coronary mortality. The relative risks between highest and lowest quarters of flavonoid intake adjusted for age, smoking, serum cholesterol concentration, blood pressure, and body mass index were 0.69 (95% confidence interval 0.53 to 0.90) and 0.54 (0.33 to 0.87) for total and coronary mortality, respectively. The corresponding values for men were 0.76 (0.63 to 0.93) and 0.78 (0.56 to 1.08), respectively. Adjustment for intake of antioxidant vitamins and fatty acids weakened the associations for women; the relative risks for coronary heart disease were 0.73 (0.41 to 1.32) and 0.67 (0.44 to 1.00) in women and men, respectively. Intakes of onions and apples, the main dietary sources of flavonoids, presented similar associations. The relative risks for coronary mortality between highest and lowest quarters of apple intake were 0.57 (0.36 to 0.91) and 0.81 (0.61 to 1.09) for women and men, respectively. The corresponding values for onions were 0.50 (0.30 to 0.82) and 0.74 (0.53 to 1.02), respectively. CONCLUSIONS: The results suggest that people with very low intakes of flavonoids have higher risks of coronary disease.     

Vitamin D in foods and as supplements

Numerous studies have shown that the vitamin D status is far from optimal in many countries all over the world. The main reason for this is lack of sunshine. Only a limited number of foods naturally contain vitamin D. Good sources of vitamin D(3) are fish (not only fatty fish), egg yolk, and offal such as liver. Some foods such as milk are fortified with vitamin D in some countries. Dietary vitamin D intake is low in many countries, especially as the dietary sources are limited. The use of supplements is important and seems to be high in some countries. Current dietary intake recommendations are too low to preserve/reach optimal S-25-OHD concentrations, when UVB radiation is not available. We suggest that the recommendations should be increased to at least 10 microg per day in all age groups when solar UVB is scarce. The elderly may need a daily vitamin D intake of 25 microg. If dietary intake of vitamin D is to be increased, food habits will have to change. From a public health point of view it is better to increase the potential sources of vitamin D by fortifying specific products that are consumed commonly in a whole population, or if necessary by especially vulnerable groups. Supplement use is probably the right alternative for vulnerable groups such as infants and inactive elderly in whom this is more easily implemented.     

Did School Food and Nutrient-Based Standards in England Impact on 11–12Y Olds Nutrient Intake at Lunchtime and in Total Diet? Repeat Cross-Sectional Study

Introduction

In September 2009, middle and secondary schools in England were required to comply with food and nutrient-based standards for school food. We examined the impact of this policy change on children’s lunchtime and total dietary intake.

Methods

We undertook repeat cross-sectional surveys in six Northumberland middle schools in 1999–2000 and 2009–10. Dietary data were collected from 11–12 y olds (n = 298 in 1999–2000; n = 215 in 2009–10). Children completed two consecutive 3-day food diaries, each followed by an interview. Linear mixed effect models examined the effect of year, lunch type and level of socio-economic deprivation on children’s mean total dietary intake.

Results

We found both before and after the introduction of the food and nutrient-based standards children consuming a school lunch, had a lower per cent energy from saturated fat (−0.5%; p = 0.02), and a lower intake of sodium (−143 mg; p = 0.02), and calcium (−81 mg; p = 0.001) in their total diet, compared with children consuming a home-packed lunch. We found no evidence that lunch type was associated with mean energy, or absolute amounts of NSP, vitamin C and iron intake. There was marginal evidence of an association between lunch type and per cent energy NMES (p = 0.06). In 1999–2000, children consuming a school lunch had a higher per cent energy from fat in their total diet compared with children consuming a home-packed lunch (2.8%), whereas by 2009–10, they had slightly less (−0.2%) (year by lunch type interaction p<0.001; change in mean differences −3%).

Conclusions

We found limited evidence of an impact of the school food and nutrient-based standards on total diet among 11–12 year olds. Such policies may need to be supported by additional measures, including guidance on individual food choice, and the development of wider supportive environments in school and beyond the school gates.     

Trends in Energy Intake in U.S. between 1977 and 1996: Similar Shifts Seen across Age Groups

Objective: To determine the trends in locations and food sources of Americans stratified by age group for both total energy and the meal and snack subcomponents. Research Methods and Procedures: Nationally representative data was taken from the 1977 to 1978 Nationwide Food Consumption Survey and the 1989 to 1991 and 1994 to 1996 (and 1998 for children age 2 through 9) Continuing Surveys of Food Intake by Individuals. The sample consisted of 63,380 individuals, age 2 and up. For each survey year, the percentage of total energy intake from meals and snacks was calculated separately for 2‐ to 18‐year‐olds, 19‐ to 39‐year‐olds, 40‐ to 59‐year‐olds, and those 60 years and older. The percentage of energy intake by location (at‐home consumption or preparation, vending, store eaten out, restaurant/fast‐food, and school) and by specific food group was computed for all age groups separately. Results: The trends in location and food sources were almost identical for all age groups. Key dietary behavior shifts included greater away‐from‐home consumption; large increases in total energy from salty snacks, soft drinks, and pizza; and large decreases in energy from low‐ and medium‐fat milk and medium‐ and high‐fat beef and pork. Discussion: Total energy intake has increased over the past 20 years, with shifts away from meals to snacks and from at‐home to away‐from‐home consumption. The similarity of changes across all age groups furthers the assertion that broad‐based environmental changes are needed to improve the diets of Americans.     

Dietary intakes,resting metabolic rates,and body composition in benign and malignant gastrointestinal disease.

Dietary protein and energy intakes were assessed in 42 patients with cancer and 24 with benign conditions of the gastrointestinal tract. The relations of dietary intake to body composition was examined. Resulting metabolic rate was measured in 51 patients. No significant differences in dietary intake or metabolic rate were found between patients with cancer and those with benign disease. There were significant positive correlations between protein and energy intakes and the ratio of total body potassium to total body water in patients with benign disease but not in those with cancer. Weight loss was probably due to inadequate food intake, the main defect being energy deficiency, since protein intake was usually well maintained. Supplementing with energy the voluntary ingested diet of patients with cancer would probably prevent weight loss in most cases.     

Health Education and Cigarette Smoking: A Report on a Three-Year Program in the Winnipeg School Division, 1960-1963

The smoking habits of Winnipeg school students were surveyed before and after a three-year program of health education on the hazards of smoking, directed to 8300 out of 48,000 students. The program consisted of informal approaches to students in elementary schools and a formal program of talks, lectures, films, and student participation for older students.There were fewer students at all ages who had never smoked a cigarette at the time of the second survey. There was a slight decrease in the number of regular smokers in high school, most marked in the school where the program was enthusiastically received and student participation was most active. A direct relationship between parental smoking and that of the student, and an inverse relationship between academic achievement and student smoking, were shown on both surveys. The majority of students believed that smoking caused lung cancer and other hazards to health, although this was less marked among smokers.The results indicated that an intensive program of health education directed to the teenagers in school was a potentially useful approach to the problem of cigarette smoking.     

Nutritional geometry of calcium and phosphorus nutrition in broiler chicks. Growth performance,skeletal health and intake arrays

The interaction between calcium (Ca) and non-phytate phosphorus (nPP) in broiler nutrition and skeletal health is highly complex with many factors influencing their digestion, absorption and utilisation. The use of an investigative model such as the geometric framework allows a graphical approach to explore these complex interactions. A total of 600 Ross 308-day-old male broiler chicks were allocated to one of 15 dietary treatments with five replicates and eight birds per replicate. Dietary treatments were formulated to one of three total densities of total Ca+nPP; high (15 g/kg), medium (13.5 g/kg) and low (12 g/kg) and at each density there were five different ratios of Ca : nPP (4, 2.75, 2.1, 1.5 and 1.14 : 1). Weekly performance data was collected and at the end of the experiment birds were individually weighed and the right leg removed for tibia ash analysis. Skeletal health was assessed using the latency to lie (LTL) at day 27. At low Ca and high nPP as well as high Ca and low nPP diets, birds had reduced feed intake, BW gain, poorer feed efficiency and lower tibia ash, resulting in a significant interaction between dietary Ca and nPP (P<0.05). LTL times were negatively influenced by diets having either a broad ratio (high Ca, low nPP) or too narrow a ratio (low Ca, high nPP) indicating that shorter LTL times may be influenced by the ratio of Ca : nPP rather than absolute concentrations of either mineral. The calculated intake arrays show that broilers more closely regulate Ca intake than nPP intake. Broilers are willing to over consume nPP to defend a Ca intake target more so than they are willing to over consume Ca to defend an nPP target. Overall dietary nPP was more influential on performance metrics, however, from the data it may appear that birds prioritise Ca intake over nPP and broadly ate to meet this requirement. As broilers are more willing to eat to a Ca intake target rather than an nPP intake target, this emphasises the importance of formulating diets to a accurately balanced density of Ca : nPP considering the biological importance of both minerals.     

Validation of overweight children's fruit and vegetable intake using plasma carotenoids

Assessing dietary intake in children is difficult and limited validated tools exist. Plasma carotenoids are nutritional biomarkers of fruit and vegetable intake and therefore suitable to validate reported dietary intakes. The aim of this study was to examine the comparative validity of a food frequency questionnaire (FFQ), completed by parents reporting child fruit and vegetable intake compared to plasma carotenoid concentrations. A sample of children aged 5-12 years (n = 93) from a range of weight categories were assessed. Dietary intake was measured using a 137-item semi-quantitative FFQ. Plasma carotenoids were measured using reverse phase high-performance liquid chromatography. Pearson correlation coefficients between reported dietary intake of carotenoids and plasma carotenoid concentrations were strongest after adjustment for BMI (beta-carotene (r = 0.56, P < 0.05), alpha-carotene (r = 0.51, P < 0.001), cryptoxanthin (r = 0.32, P < 0.001)). Significantly lower levels (P < 0.05) of all plasma carotenoids, except lutein, were found among overweight and obese children when compared to healthy weight children. Parental report of children's carotenoid intakes, using a FFQ can be used to provide a relative validation of fruit and vegetable intake. The lower plasma carotenoid concentrations found in overweight and obese children requires further investigation.     

Nutrition and Physical Activity Program to Attenuate Obesity and Promote Physical and Metabolic Fitness in Elementary School Children

Obesity and low levels of physical and metabolic fitness are risk factors for cardiovascular disease and diabetes. The purpose of this investigation was to attenuate obesity and improve physical and metabolic fitness in elementary school children. Schools have the opportunity, mechanisms, and personnel in place to deliver nutrition education, fitness activities, and a school food service that is nutritious and healthy. Cohorts from grades 3 to 5 in two school districts in rural Nebraska (Intervention/Control) participated in a 2-year study of physical activity and modified school lunch program. Data collection for aerobic capacity, body composition, blood chemistry, nutrition knowledge, energy intake, and physical activity was at the beginning and end of each year. Int received enhanced physical activity, grade specific nutrition education, and a lower fat and sodium school lunch program. Con continued with a regular school lunch and team sports activity program. At year 2, Int lunches had significantly less energy (9%), fat (25%), sodium (21%), and more fiber (17%). However, measures of 24-hour energy intake for Int and Con showed significant differences for sodium only. Physical activity in the classroom was 6% greater for Int compared to Con (p < 0.05) but physical activity outside of school was ?16 % less for Int compared to Con (p < 0.05). Body weight and body fat were not different between schools for normal weight or obese children. No differences were found for cholesterol, insulin, and glucose; however, HDL cholesterol was significantly greater and cholesterol/HDL was significantly less for Int compared to Con (p < 0.05). It appears that compensation in both energy intake and physical activity outside of school may be responsible for the lack of differences between Int and Con.     

Dietary pattern and 20 year mortality in elderly men in Finland,Italy, and The Netherlands: longitudinal cohort study.

OBJECTIVE: To investigate the association of dietary pattern and mortality in international data. DESIGN: Cohort study with 20 years'' follow up of mortality. SETTING: Five cohorts in Finland, the Netherlands, and Italy. SUBJECTS: Population based random sample of 3045 men aged 50-70 years in 1970. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Food intake was estimated using a cross check dietary history. In this dietary survey method, the usual food consumption pattern in the 6-12 months is estimated. A healthy diet indicator was calculated for the dietary pattern, using the World Health Organisation''s guidelines for the prevention of chronic diseases. Vital status was verified after 20 years of follow up, and death rates were calculated. RESULTS: Dietary intake varied greatly in 1970 between the three countries. In Finland and the Netherlands the intake of saturated fatty acids and cholesterol was high and the intake of alcohol was low; in Italy the opposite was observed. In total 1796 men (59%) died during 20 years of follow up. The healthy diet indicator was inversely associated with mortality (P for trend < 0.05). After adjustment for age, smoking, and alcohol consumption, the relative risk in the group with the healthiest diet indicator compared with the group with the least healthy was 0.87 (95% confidence interval 0.77 to 0.98). Estimated relative risks were essentially similar within each country. CONCLUSIONS: Dietary intake of men aged 50-70 is associated with a 20 year, all cause mortality in different cultures. The healthy diet indicator is useful in evaluating the relation of mortality to dietary patterns.     

Maternal Milk Concentration of Zinc,Iron, Selenium,and Iodine and Its Relationship to Dietary Intakes

The dietary intake of zinc (Zn), iron (Fe), selenium (Se), and iodine (I) of 31 lactating Mexican–American women attending the Hidalgo County WIC program in Rio Grande Valley (RGV), Texas was estimated from 24-h dietary recall interviews. Milk samples were obtained from lactating mothers who had infants 3 months of age and younger. Milk samples were collected in two visits to assess change in breast milk composition after 1–3 months postpartum: group A—after 30–45 days and group B—75–90 days. Dietary intakes indicated that the study participants had significantly inadequate percent energy intakes than the DRI (Dietary Recommended Intakes) percent recommended kilocalorie values but protein intakes were substantially higher than the percent recommended values. The estimated percent Zn, Fe, Se, and I intakes were also significantly lower than the DRI percent recommended values. The lactating mothers consumed significantly less Zn, Se, and I when compared to the Recommended Dietary Allowances (RDA) even though Fe intake was higher than the RDA value. Breast milk concentration of Zn, Fe, and Se were in agreement within the range of representative values for Constituents of Human Milk but I has significantly less concentration than the representative value. There was no statistically significant correlation observed between dietary intake and milk concentration of Zn, Fe, Se, and I. This study compares the estimated dietary intake of zinc, iron, selenium, and iodine to the concentration of these trace elements in the maternal milk of lactating women of Mexican–American heritage who attend the Rio Grande Valley WIC clinic.     

Fecal microbiome composition and stability in 4- to 8-year old children is associated with dietary patterns and nutrient intake

How long-term dietary intake shapes microbiota composition and stability in young children is poorly understood. Herein, the temporal variability in stool microbiota composition in relation to habitual dietary patterns of 4- to 8-year-old children (n=22) was investigated. Fecal samples were collected at baseline, 6 weeks and 6 months. Bacterial composition and volatile fatty acids were assessed by 16S rRNA sequencing and gas-chromatography, respectively. Nutrient intake was assessed using 3-day food diaries and dietary patterns were empirically derived from a food frequency questionnaire. Using a factor loading of >0.45 for a food group to be a major contributor to the overall dietary pattern, two dietary patterns were found to be associated with distinct microbiome composition. Dietary Pattern 1 (DP1), characterized by intake of fish, protein foods, refined carbohydrates, vegetables, fruit, juice and sweetened beverages, kid’s meals and snacks and sweets, was associated with higher relative abundance of Bacteroidetes, Bacteroides and Ruminococcus and lower abundance of Bifidobacterium, Prevotella, Blautia and Roseburia. Dietary Pattern 2 (DP2), characterized by intake of grains, dairy and legumes, nuts and seeds, was associated with higher relative abundance of Cyanobacteria and Phascolarctobacterium and lower abundance of Dorea and Eubacterium. Fruit and starchy foods were present in both patterns, but were more associated with DP1 and DP2, respectively. Temporal stability of microbiota over a 6-month period was associated with baseline dietary patterns. Understanding how dietary intake contributes to microbiota composition and stability in early life in important for dietary recommendations and designing clinical interventions for microbiota-associated diseases.     

Wise Mind project: a school-based environmental approach for preventing weight gain in children

Objective: The Wise Mind pilot study compared the efficacy of an environmental approach for prevention of inappropriate weight gain in children with an active control condition that used an environmental approach for modifying expectancies related to the use of alcohol, tobacco, and drugs. Research Methods and Procedures: A total of 670 second to sixth grade students from four schools were enrolled in the study. The study spanned 2 academic years, and 586 students were available for evaluation at the end of the study. Two schools were randomly assigned to each treatment arm. The environmental approach for weight gain prevention focused on modification of eating habits and physical activity, and the active control group focused on modification of expectancies related to substance use. Results: Using an intention to treat design, the study found no differences in weight gain prevention between the two interventions. The weight gain prevention program was associated with reduction of total caloric intake, reduction of dietary fat intake, reduction of protein intake, and increased physical activity in comparison with the active control group and relative to baseline. These changes in food intake were attributed to changes in food selections that resulted from modification of school cafeteria menus and food preparation. Discussion: The Wise Mind school‐based weight gain prevention program induced behavioral changes in healthy eating and physical activity but did not induce significant changes in body weight in comparison with the control arm. Recommendations for future research are provided.     

Dietary calcium utilization among a group of spanish boys aged 11–14 years on their usual diets

Adolescence constitutes a period of nutritional vulnerability due to increased dietary requirements for growth and development and special dietary habits. A pilot trial was performed to evaluate the dietary calcium utilization among a sample of Spanish boys on their usual diets, in which the calcium intake and consumption of dairy products were as well examined. Nutrient and food intake was recorded using a 24-h dietary recall and a 2-d food consumption record for 21 subjects aged 11-14 years. Dietary calcium utilization was assessed by means of calcium intake in food and calcium output in faeces and urine as measured by flame atomic absorption spectrophotometry. Overall intake of dairy products was 399.3 +/- 22.1 g/d, and the single most consumed item was milk (72% of the total). An inverse relationship was found between dairy product consumption at breakfast (55% of the total) and BMI (p = 0.016, r = -0.5168). Dairy products contributed the majority of dietary calcium (66.9%). Mean calcium intake was 881.7 +/- 39.9 mg/d, 88% of the recommended value for Spanish adolescents. Net calcium absorption (271.7 +/- 51.7 mg/d) and retention (170.6 +/- 50.9 mg/d) seemed not to be sufficient to meet growth demands during puberty. The results shown that adolescents of the study absorbed 31% of dietary calcium and retained nearly 20% of the total intake, but dietary calcium intake and consumption of dairy products failed to meet recommended values. Optimizing calcium intake is of crucial importance among adolescents, to maximize calcium retention and to help prevent osteoporosis in later life.     

Disparity between dietary iron intake and iron status of children aged 10-12 years

Iron status was assessed in a representative sample of 188 adolescents living in a medium-sized city in Poland. Dietary intakes were evaluated using records of diet over a period of seven consecutive days. Subjects were considered to be iron deficient when two or more of the following parameters were abnormal: serum ferritin, transferrin saturation or mean corpuscular haemoglobin concentration. Based on this definition, the prevalence of iron deficiency in the investigated sample of children aged from ten to twelve years was 12.7%. Iron deficiency anaemia was defined using the following criteria: haemoglobin values less than 12.0 g. dl (-1) in girls or less than 12.2 g. dl(-1) in boys, combined with an iron deficiency. With such a definition, the prevalence of iron deficiency anaemia in all subjects was 6.3%. Four boys (3.9%) and six girls (6.8%) were diagnosed as anaemic. The values for Hb in the anaemic boys ranged from 10.9 to 12.2 g. dl (-1) and in anaemic girls from 8.7 to 12.0 g. (-1). It was found that the majority of the individuals studied had a dietary haem-iron intake lower than that recommended. No relationship was found between the level of serum ferritin and total iron and vitamin C dietary intake, but there was positive correlation between serum ferritin and intake of haem iron. A seven-day dietary history questionnaire correctly identified children at risk of iron deficiency anaemia.     

Randomised controlled trial of effect of fruit and vegetable consumption on plasma concentrations of lipids and antioxidants.

OBJECTIVES: To determine the extent to which plasma antioxidant concentrations in people with habitual low intake of fruit and vegetables respond to increased intakes of these foods. To examine whether advice to increase fruit and vegetables will result in reduction of concentrations of total and low density lipoprotein cholesterol. DESIGN: Randomised controlled trial in which intervention and control groups were followed up for eight weeks. The intervention group was asked to consume eight servings of fruit and vegetables a day. SETTING: Dunedin, New Zealand. SUBJECTS: Eighty seven subjects with normal lipid concentrations who ate three or fewer servings of fruit and vegetables daily. MAIN OUTCOME MEASURES: Plasma concentrations of vitamin C, retinol, alpha and beta carotene, alpha tocopherol, lipids, and lipoproteins. Dietary intake assessed with diet records over four days. RESULTS: The mean plasma vitamin C, alpha carotene, and beta carotene concentrations increased in parallel with increased dietary intake of fruit and vegetables in the intervention group. Concentrations of retinol, alpha tocopherol, lipids, and lipoproteins remained unchanged despite some increase in dietary vitamin E and a small reduction in saturated fat intake. CONCLUSIONS: Following a recommendation to increase fruit and vegetable consumption produces change in plasma concentrations of vitamin C, alpha carotene, and beta carotene likely to reduce incidence of cancer. More specific dietary advice to modify fat intake may be necessary to reduce the risk of cardiovascular disease mediated by lipoprotein and vitamin E.     

Lowest neonatal serum sodium predicts sodium intake in low birth weight children

Forty-one children aged 10.5 +/- 0.2 years (range, 8.0-15.0 yr), born with low birth weight of 1,218.2 +/- 36.6 g (range, 765-1,580 g) were selected from hospital archives on the basis of whether they had received neonatal diuretic treatment or as healthy matched controls. The children were tested for salt appetite and sweet preference, including rating of preferred concentration of salt in tomato soup (and sugar in tea), ratings of oral spray (NaCl and sucrose solutions), intake of salt or sweet snack items, and a food-seasoning, liking, and dietary questionnaire. Results showed that sodium appetite was not related to neonatal diuretic treatment, birth weight, or gestational age. However, there was a robust inverse correlation (r = -0.445, P < 0.005) between reported dietary sodium intake and the neonatal lowest serum sodium level (NLS) recorded for each child as an index of sodium loss. The relationship of NLS and dietary sodium intake was found in both boys and girls and in both Arab and Jewish children, despite marked ethnic differences in dietary sources of sodium. Hence, low NLS predicts increased intake of dietary sodium in low birth weight children some 8-15 yr later. Taken together with other recent evidence, it is now clear that perinatal sodium loss, from a variety of causes, is a consistent and significant contributor to long-term sodium intake.