On the specificity of naloxone as an opiate antagonist.

Since the discovery of endogenous opioid peptides in brain (68,69,97,113, 128) and the pituitary gland (26,81,105,125) there has been considerable interest in their possible roles in a variety of physiological and pharmacological processes. Many studies have used antagonism by naloxone as a criterion for implicating endogenous opiates in a process, assuming that naloxene has no pharmacological actions other than those related to blockade of opiate receptors. The doses of naloxene used are often higher than those required to antagonize the analgesic and other effects of morphine. However, multiple forms of opiate receptors are present in nervous tissue and higher concentrations of naloxene are required to antagonize effects mediated by some of these receptors (83). Although the earlier literature supports the assumption that the effects of naloxene are due to the blockade of opiate receptors (87), there are an increasing number of reports which indicate that naloxene may have pharmacological actions unrelated to opiate receptor blockade. The subsequent review serves to emphasize that antagonism by naloxene is a necessary but not sufficient criterion for invoking the mediation of a response by an endogenous opiate (61). Additional lines of evidence which serve to strengthen the conclusion that endogenous opiates mediate a process will be considered.     

MIF-1, Tyr-MIF-1, and MSH: Control of MSH Release and Extra-pigmentary Effects

New brain peptides are being discovered with increasing frequency.The discovery of multiple forms of MSH and evidence for a novelpeptide structurally related to MIF-1 may provide avenues fornew insights into the mechanisms controlling MSH release Demonstrationthat levels of the new tetrapeptide Tyr-MIF-1 are higher insome parts of the brain than in others and can be altered byneuroendocrine manipulations raises the possibility that thispeptide may affect CNS functions regardless of any effects onMSH release. Early studies on the extra-pigmentary effects ofMSH and MIF-1, which ushered in the field of brain peptides,provide models for the exploration of these possibilities. Explanationsfor unusual dose-response relationships, chronic effects afterneonatal injections, and the mechanisms by which peripherallyadministered peptides reach the brain to exert behavioral andEEG actions remain to be found     

Multiple opiate receptors: emerging concepts

Increasing biochemical evidence indicates that the wide spectrum of opiate pharmacological actions are mediated via heterogeneous classes of receptors. μ receptors have been identified as the high affinity sites where morphine-like opiates exert their analgesic effects. δ receptors have a somewhat different CNS distribution and have been identified as sites relatively selective for the naturally occuring enkephalins. Recent biochemical studies provide evidence for two additional classes of opiate receptor sites which were originally proposed on the basis of physiological studies. Ketocyclazocine-like opiates produce their unique ataxic and sedative effects via interaction with K receptors, and SKF-10,047 (N-allylnorcyclazocine) and related opiates produce stimulant and psychotomimetic effects via interactions with σ receptors.Many opiate drugs interact at multiple receptor sites. Thus, the constellation of neuropharmacological actions of a particular opioid ligand may reflect its various potencies at a combination of μ, δ, K, and σ receptors.     

Adrenomedullin and central cardiovascular regulation.

Adrenomedullin gene products have been localized to neurons in brain that innervate sites known to be important in the regulation of cardiovascular function. Those sites also have been demonstrated to possess receptors for the peptide and central administrations of adrenomedullin (AM) and proadrenomedullin N-terminal 20 peptide (PAMP) elevate blood pressure and heart rate in both conscious and anesthetized animals. The accumulated evidence points to a role of the sympathetic nervous system in these cardiovascular effects. These sympathostimulatory actions of AM and PAMP have been hypothesized to be cardioprotective in nature and to reflect the central nervous system (CNS) equivalent of the direct cardiostimulatory effects of the peptides in the periphery. This review summarizes the most recent data on the CNS actions of the adrenomedullin gene-derived peptides and suggests future strategies for the elucidation of the physiologic relevance of the already demonstrated, pharmacologic actions of these peptides.     

Endogenous opiates and behavior: 2014

This paper is the thirty-seventh consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2014 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (endogenous opioids and receptors), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (pain and analgesia); stress and social status (human studies); tolerance and dependence (opioid mediation of other analgesic responses); learning and memory (stress and social status); eating and drinking (stress-induced analgesia); alcohol and drugs of abuse (emotional responses in opioid-mediated behaviors); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (opioid involvement in stress response regulation); mental illness and mood (tolerance and dependence); seizures and neurologic disorders (learning and memory); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (opiates and conditioned place preferences (CPP)); general activity and locomotion (eating and drinking); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (alcohol and drugs of abuse); cardiovascular responses (opiates and ethanol); respiration and thermoregulation (opiates and THC); and immunological responses (opiates and stimulants).This paper is the thirty-seventh consecutive installment of the annual review of research concerning the endogenous opioid system. It summarizes papers published during 2014 that studied the behavioral effects of molecular, pharmacological and genetic manipulation of opioid peptides, opioid receptors, opioid agonists and opioid antagonists. The particular topics that continue to be covered include the molecular-biochemical effects and neurochemical localization studies of endogenous opioids and their receptors related to behavior (endogenous opioids and receptors), and the roles of these opioid peptides and receptors in pain and analgesia (pain and analgesia); stress and social status (human studies); tolerance and dependence (opioid mediation of other analgesic responses); learning and memory (stress and social status); eating and drinking (stress-induced analgesia); alcohol and drugs of abuse (emotional responses in opioid-mediated behaviors); sexual activity and hormones, pregnancy, development and endocrinology (opioid involvement in stress response regulation); mental illness and mood (tolerance and dependence); seizures and neurologic disorders (learning and memory); electrical-related activity and neurophysiology (opiates and conditioned place preferences (CPP)); general activity and locomotion (eating and drinking); gastrointestinal, renal and hepatic functions (alcohol and drugs of abuse); cardiovascular responses (opiates and ethanol); respiration and thermoregulation (opiates and THC); and immunological responses (opiates and stimulants).     

Opiate modulating properties of nociceptin/orphanin FQ

The recently discovered peptide nociceptin/orphanin FQ (N/OFQ) and its receptor NOR share many structural similarities with the opioid peptides and their receptors. The anatomical distributions of N/OFQ and NOR are similar to those of opioid peptides and receptors. In addition, NOR and opiate receptors couple via the same G-proteins to similar effectors, such as Ca(2+) channels, K(+) channels, adenylyl cyclase, and several protein kinases. Thus, the behavioral effects of N/OFQ have been investigated in the context of known opiate effects, and a possible connection has been sought between the effects of these two homologous signaling systems. Originally characterized as a nociception-producing peptide, N/OFQ has now been shown to have diverse effects on nociception, as well as effects on many other behaviors. With regard to nociception, the peptide has been reported to produce hyperalgesia, reversal of opioid-mediated analgesia, analgesia, and allodynia. N/OFQ also has effects on other behaviors, such as locomotion, feeding, anxiety, spatial attention, reproductive behaviors, and opiate tolerance. The relationship between opiates and N/OFQ is strengthened by the fact that opiates also affect these behaviors. However, the exact nature of the relationship of N/OFQ with opiates-opiate-like versus antiopiate-remains controversial. This review will detail the diverse effects of N/OFQ and suggest that this peptide, like other putative antiopiate peptides, can be described as 'opiate modulating. '     

Effects of cimetidine-like drugs on recombinant GABAA receptors

Even though conventional systemic doses of cimetidine and other histamine H(2) antagonists display minimal brain penetration, central nervous system (CNS) effects (including seizures and analgesia) have been reported after administration of these drugs in animals and man. To test the hypothesis that cimetidine-like drugs produce these CNS effects via inhibition of GABA(A) receptors, the actions of these drugs were studied on seven different, precisely-defined rat recombinant GABA(A) receptors using whole-cell patch clamp recordings. The H(2) antagonists famotidine and tiotidine produced competitive and reversible inhibition of GABA-evoked currents in HEK293 cells transfected with various GABA(A) receptor subunits (IC(50) values were between 10-50 microM). In contrast, the H(2) antagonist ranitidine and the cimetidine congener improgan had very weak (if any) effects (IC(50) > 50 microM). Since the concentrations of cimetidine-like drugs required to inhibit GABA(A) receptors in vitro (greater than 50 microM) are considerably higher than those found during analgesia and/or seizures (1-2 microM), the present results suggest that cimetidine-like drugs do not appear to produce seizures or analgesia by directly inhibiting GABA(A) receptors.     

Intermedin/adrenomedullin-2 acts within central nervous system to elevate blood pressure and inhibit food and water intake

Intermedin (IMD)/adrenomedullin-2 (AM2) is a novel peptide that was independently discovered by two groups. The 47-amino acid peptide is homologous to adrenomedullin (AM) and can activate both the AM and calcitonin gene-related peptide (CGRP) receptors. IMD should therefore have actions similar to those of AM and CGRP. Indeed, like AM and CGRP, intravenous administration of IMD decreased blood pressure in rats and mice. We demonstrate here that immunoreactive IMD is present in plasma as well as heart, lung, stomach, kidney, pituitary, and brain. Because IMD is present in brain and both AM and CGRP have potent central nervous system (CNS) effects, we examined the ability of IMD within brain to regulate blood pressure and ingestive behaviors. Administration of IMD into the lateral cerebroventricle of rats caused significant, long-lasting elevations in mean arterial pressure and heart rate. These elevations are similar to the effects of CGRP and significantly greater than the effects of AM. IMD-induced elevations in mean arterial pressure were inhibited by intravenous administration of phentolamine, indicating that IMD activates the sympathetic nervous system. Intracerebroventricular administration of IMD also inhibited food and water intake in sated and in food- and water-restricted animals. The effects on feeding are likely related to activation of the CGRP receptor and are independent of the effects on water intake, which are likely through the AM receptor. Our data indicate that IMD has potent actions within the CNS that may be a result of the combined activation of both AM and CGRP receptors.     

Do inhalation general anesthetic drugs induce the neuronal release of endogenous opioid peptides?

The antagonism of some effects of inhalation general anesthetic agents by naloxone suggests that there may be an opioid component to anesthetic action. There is evidence that this opioid action component is due to neuronal release of endogenous opioid peptides. The strongest evidence is provided by studies that monitor changes in the concentration of opioid peptides in the perfused brain following inhalation of the anesthetic. Indirect or circumstantial evidence also comes from studies of anesthetic effects on regional brain levels of opioid peptides, antagonism of selected anesthetic effects by antisera to opioid peptides and anesthetic-induced changes radioligand binding to opioid receptors. It is likely that some inhalation general anesthetics (e.g., nitrous oxide) can induce neuronal release of opioid peptides and that this may contribute to certain components of general anesthesia (e.g., analgesia). More definitive studies utilizing in vivo microdialysis or autoradiography in selected areas of the brain during induction and successive states of general anesthesia have yet to be conducted.     

Central administration of neuropeptide FF and related peptides attenuate systemic morphine analgesia in mice

Neuropeptide FF (NPFF) belongs to an opioid-modulating peptide family. NPFF has been reported to play important roles in the control of pain and analgesia through interactions with the opioid system. However, very few studies examined the effect of supraspinal NPFF system on analgesia induced by opiates administered at the peripheral level. In the present study, intracerebroventricular (i.c.v.) injection of NPFF (1, 3 and 10 nmol) dose-dependently inhibited systemic morphine (0.12 mg, i.p.) analgesia in the mouse tail flick test. Similarly, i.c.v. administration of dNPA and NPVF, two agonists highly selective for NPFF(2) and NPFF(1) receptors, respectively, decreased analgesia induced by i.p. morphine in mice. Furthermore, these anti-opioid activities of NPFF and related peptides were blocked by pretreatment with the NPFF receptors selective antagonist RF9 (10 nmol, i.c.v.). These results demonstrate that activation of central NPFF(1) and NPFF(2) receptors has the similar anti-opioid actions on the antinociceptive effect of systemic morphine.     

Angiotensins promote fluid absorption in the rat ileum after their CNS administration

Angiotensin II (A-II) has been found previously to increase mean arterial pressure (MAP) and enhance fluid absorption in the rat ileum in situ after intracerebroventricular (ICV) administration. In this investigation, the CNS-mediated proabsorptive actions of A-II and other products of the renin-angiotensin system, as well as nonhomologous peptides were further characterized in the urethane-anesthetized rat. At an ICV bolus dose of 1 microgram, angiotensinogen, A-I, A-II and A-III produced significant elevations in MAP, but only A-II and A-III increased ileal absorption significantly above that of saline-treated rats. The ICV administration of other unrelated peptides did not mimic the actions of A-II or A-III. The results suggest that the pressor and ileal proabsorptive actions of angiotensins are mediated through different CNS mechanisms and that these peptides uniquely alter intestinal transport.     

Cloning and characterization of Xen-dorphin prohormone from Xenopus laevis: a new opioid-like prohormone distinct from proenkephalin and prodynorphin

Opioid-like peptides mediate analgesia and induce behavioral effects such as tolerance and dependence by ligand-receptor-mediated mechanisms. The classical opioid prohormones can generate several bioactive peptides, and these divergent families of prohormones share a common well conserved ancestral opioid motif (Tyr-Gly-Gly-Phe). Evidence from pharmacological and molecular cloning studies indicates the presence of multiple isoforms of opioid ligands and receptors that are as yet uncharacterized. To identify potential new members we used the opioid motif as an anchor sequence and isolated two distinct isoforms (Xen-dorphins A and B) of an opioid prohormone from Xenopus laevis brain cDNA library. Xen-dorphin prohormones can generate multiple novel opioid ligands distinct from the known members of this family. Both isoforms are present in a wide variety of tissues including the brain. Two potential bioactive peptides, Xen-dorphin-1A and -1B, that were chemically synthesized showed opioid agonist activity in frog and rat brain membranes using a [35S]GTPgammaS assay. Initial radioligand binding experiments demonstrated that Xen-dorphin-1B binds with high affinity to opioid receptor(s) and with potential preference to the kappa-opioid receptor subtype. Cloning of the Xen-dorphin prohormone provides new evidence for the potential presence of other members in the opioid peptide superfamily.     

IgG from antiserum against endogenous mammalian FMRF-NH2-related peptides augments morphine- and stress-induced analgesia in mice

Two mammalian FMRF-NH2-like peptides have been isolated from bovine brain; an octapeptide with the structure Phe-Leu-Phe-Gln-Pro-Gln-Arg-Phe-NH2 (F-8-F-NH2) and an octadecapeptide, Ala-Gly-Glu-Gly-Leu-Ser-Ser-Pro-Phe-Trp-Ser-Leu-Ala-Ala-Pro-Gln-Arg-Phe- NH2 (A-18-F-NH2). In the present study determinations were made of the effects of intracerebroventricular administration of IgG prepared from antisera raised against these peptides on nociception and morphine- and immobilization-induced opioid analgesia in mice. Both F-8-F-NH2-IgG and A-18-F-NH2-IgG antisera increased nociception (thermal response latency) and significantly augmented morphine- and immobilization-induced analgesia in a naloxone reversible manner, with F-8-F-NH2-IgG antisera having a greater effect than A-18-F-NH2-IgG antisera. These results provide further evidence that mammalian FMRF-NH2-like peptides function as endogenous opiate antagonists and have a role in the mediation of antinociception.     

孤啡肽在大鼠脑内对抗吗啡镇痛

脑内全新的阿片受体样受体（１９９４）及其内源性配体孤啡肽（１９９５）的发现形成了中枢神经系统阿片／抗阿片相互关系的研究领域中一个新的推动力。基于它们与阿片家族的高同源性及在脑内痛觉整合相关区域的丰富表达,本实验观察了ＯＦＱ在大鼠脑内对吗啡镇痛作用的影响。结果表明：（１）ＯＦＱ可以对抗脑室注射生理盐水引起的镇痛,后者可能是一种由内源性阿片系统介导的应激镇痛。（２）脑室注射ＯＦＱ在很大的剂量范围（４０     

Nicotine-induced alteration in Tyr-Gly-Gly and Met-enkephalin in discrete brain nuclei reflects altered enkephalin neuron activity

Nicotine acts in CNS, but the pathways and mechanisms of its actions are poorly understood. Recent studies suggest an interaction between brain nicotinic receptors and endogenous opioid peptides. Acute administration of nicotine may alter enkephalin release without affecting brain enkephalin level. Tyr-Gly-Gly has been shown previously to be an extraneuronal metabolite of opioid peptides derived from proenkephalin A. Concentrations of Tyr-Gly-Gly in brain were used to provide an index of enkephalin release in vivo. Thus we examined the thesis that nicotine alters brain neuronal enkephalin release, by measuring Tyr-Gly-Gly levels in specific brain nuclei from rats treated with nicotine 0.3 mg/kg SC 10 min before decapitation. Of 30 brain regions investigated, acute nicotine increased Tyr-Gly-Gly immunoreactivity in nucleus accumbens and in lower brain stem areas including dorsal raphe, pontine reticular formation, gigantocellular reticular formation, locus coeruleus, sensory trigeminal nucleus and the caudal part of ventrolateral medulla oblongata. Concomitantly, nicotine produced a significant decrease in native Met-enkephalin in central amygdala, flocculo-nodular lobe of cerebellum, caudal part of the ventrolateral medulla and intermediolateral cell column of the spinal cord. It is probable that the effects of nicotine to increase Tyr-Gly-Gly and alter Met-enkephalin concentration are mediated by nicotine-induced release of enkephalin at these brain sites. Furthermore, some of the physiologic and pharmacologic effects of nicotine may be mediated by such enkephalin release.     

Hypothalamic peptides: central nervous system control of visceral functions

Thyrotropin-releasing factor (TRF), somatostatin, and bombesin-like peptide are present in the brain and may be involved in central nervous system (CNS) control of visceral functions. All three peptides exert potent actions to modify animal thermoregulation. TRF and somatostatin or somatostatin analogs act within the brain to influence parasympathetic and sympathetic outflow resulting in changes of adrenal epinephrine secretion, gastric acid secretion, heart rate, and blood pressure. Bombesin acts within the brain to increase adrenal epinephrine secretion and to inhibit gastric acid secretion without influencing other sympathetic or parasympathetic activities. These peptides and others may be important physiological regulators of CNS information processing related to a variety of visceral systems.     

Action of narcotic analgesics and antagonists on spinal units responding to natural stimulation in the cat.

Morphine and morphine-related agents were applied by microiontophoresis in the lumbar spinal cord of spinal cats to single units classified on the basis of their responses to natural cutaneous or proprioceptive stimulation. Opiate application had a current-dependent depressant effect on the ongoing activities of about one-third of the units tested. This effect was observed in laminae I and IV--VI, but only with units responding to noxious cutaneous stimuli: the nociceptive responses were themselves depressed. Excitatory and inhibitory responses to glutamate and gamma-aminobutyric acid, respectively, were also depressed. Intravenous administration of the opiates at doses reported to produce analgesia in the cat also depressed only units responding to noxious cutaneous stimuli, including their nociceptive responses. This depression could be reversed by either the iontophoretic application (100 nA) or the intravenous administration (0.1--0.8 mg/kg) of naloxone. These results are interpreted as further evidence that the analgesic effects of opiates are at least partly due to an action at the spinal level.     

Delta and sigma sites of clonal NCB20 cells do not modulate calcium uptake

Opiate alkaloids and peptides are reported to inhibit 45Ca2+ binding to synaptic plasma membranes and uptake into brain synaptosomes. We have examined the effects of a number of opiates on 45Ca2+ uptake in a clonal cell line NCB20 which expresses multiple opioid binding sites. The cells express voltage-dependent calcium channels that are blocked by verapamil and nifedipine. In contrast to brain, 45Ca2+ uptake in these cells, in normal or high potassium medium, is unaffected by opiates. This difference may be due to the particular receptor types; the delta and sigma sites of these cells do not inhibit 45Ca2+ uptake.     

Antinociceptive effects of intraventricular or systemic administration of vasopressin in the rat

The effects of intraventricular administration of lysine-vasopressin on pain sensitivity in the rat were determined in the tail-flick test. Vasopressin (16–100 μg) was found to induce potent and dose-dependent antinociceptive actions, lasting up to one hour. An additional experiment demonstrated that analgesia induced by vasopressin was not blocked by naloxone, suggesting that this analgesia is independent of opiate receptor systems. Vasopressin was also found to be equally effective in elevating tail-flick latency after systemic administration. These results, together with others, suggest a possible role of vasopressin systems in the regulation of pain sensitivity.     

From MIF-1 to endomorphin: the Tyr-MIF-1 family of peptides

The Tyr-MIF-1 family of small peptides has served a prototypic role in the introduction of several novel concepts into the peptide field of research. MIF-1 (Pro-Leu-Gly-NH₂) was the first hypothalamic peptide shown to act “up” on the brain, not just “down” on the pituitary. In several situations, including clinical depression, MIF-1 exhibits an inverted U-shaped dose–response relationship in which increasing doses can result in decreasing effects. This tripeptide also can antagonize opiate actions, and the first report of such activity also correctly predicted the discovery of other endogenous antiopiate peptides. The tetrapeptide Tyr-MIF-1 (Tyr-Pro-Leu-Gly-NH₂) not only shows antiopiate activity, but also considerable selectivity for the mu-opiate binding site. Tyr-W-MIF-1 (Tyr-Pro-Trp-Gly-NH₂) is an even more selective ligand for the mu receptor, leading to the discovery of two more Tyr-Pro tetrapeptides that have the highest specificity and affinity for this site. These are the endomorphins: endomorphin-1 is Tyr-Pro-Trp-Phe-NH₂ and endomorphin-2 is Tyr-Pro-Phe-Phe-NH₂. Tyr-MIF-1 proved, contrary to the then prevailing dogma, that peptides can be saturably transported across the blood–brain barrier by a quantifiable transport system. Unexpectedly, the Tyr-MIF-1 transporter is shared with Met-enkephalin. In the era in which it was doubtful whether a peripheral peptide could exert CNS effects, the Tyr-MIF-1 family of peptides also explicitly showed that they can exert more than one central action that persists longer than their half-lives in blood. These peptides clearly illustrate that the name of a peptide restricts neither its actions nor its conceptual implications.