Characterization of two mutant lactose repressor proteins containing single tryptophans

Two mutant lactose repressors, each containing a single tryptophan, were generated by site-specific mutagenesis. Tyrosine was substituted for tryptophan to be analogous to amber suppression mutants reported previously (Sommer, H., Lu, P., and Miller, J. H. (1976) J. Biol. Chem. 251, 3774-3779). Unlike the amber suppression mutants, plasmids containing the mutant sequences produce large quantities of stable, easily isolable protein. The binding properties of the site-specific mutant repressors (W201Y, W220Y) differ from those reported for the corresponding suppression mutants (A201, A220). Whereas minimal effects on operator dissociation rate from lambda plac DNA were noted for the suppression mutants, purified W201Y and W220Y proteins exhibit 10- and 5-fold reduced affinity for a 40-base pair operator, respectively, compared with wild-type. Inducer binding of the A201 and W201Y mutants was similar to that for wild-type repressor, but the inducer affinity of W220Y was approximately 2-fold lower than A220 (approximately 30-fold lower than wild-type). Fluorescence spectra and iodide quenching of the mutant proteins were similar to the suppression mutants, but the absorption coefficient differed significantly from the values reported previously. Acrylamide and iodide quenching results indicate that Trp201 is relatively buried whereas Trp220 is exposed to solvent; inducer binding reduces quenching of Trp220 significantly. CD spectra indicate that the mutant proteins have secondary structural features similar to those of wild-type. Inducer UV difference spectra showed that the major features reported for the wild-type isopropyl beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside difference spectrum were attributable to both tryptophans. In the presence of melibiose, a new minimum appeared in the difference spectra of wild-type and W201Y which was not evident when these proteins bound isopropyl beta-D-thiogalactopyranoside. It is possible that this new feature results from Trp220 involvement in a direct contact with the second sugar in disaccharide inducer molecules such as melibiose and 1,6-allolactose.     

Trinitrobenzenesulfonate modification of the lysine residues in lactose repressor protein

Modification of the lysine residues in the lactose repressor protein has been carried out with trinitrobenzenesulfonate. Reaction of lysine residues at positions 33, 37, 108, 290, and 327 was observed. Inducer binding was increased by modification with this reagent, while both nonspecific DNA binding and operator DNA binding were diminished, although to differing degrees. The loss in operator DNA binding capacity was complete with modification of approximately 2 equiv of lysine per monomer. The extent of reaction was affected by the presence of both sugar and DNA ligands; binding activities of the modified protein and reaction pattern of the lysines were perturbed by these ligands. The presence of operator or nonspecific DNA during the reaction protected against specific and nonspecific DNA binding activity loss. This protection presumably occurs by steric restriction of reagent access to lysine residues which are essential for both nonspecific and operator binding interactions. Lysines-33 and -108 were protected from modification in the presence of DNA. These experiments suggest that the charge on the lysine residues is important for protein interaction with DNA and that steric constraints for operator DNA interaction with the protein are more restrictive than for nonspecific DNA binding. In contrast, inducer (isopropyl beta-D-thiogalactoside) presence partially protected lysine-290 from modification while significantly enhancing reaction at lysine-327. Conformational alterations consequent to inducer binding are apparently reflected in these altered lysine reactivities.     

Chemical modification of lactose repressor protein using N-substituted maleimides.

Lactose repressor protein has been modified with N-ethylmaleimide, two N-maleimide spin labels, and an N-maleimide fluorophore. The reaction with repressor cysteine residues has been characterized. Approximately 2 of the 3 eq of cysteine/repressor monomer are reactive toward these reagents. Repressor cysteines are reactive toward these reagents in the order cysteine 140 greater than or equal to cysteine 107 greater than cysteine 281. The reaction is sulfhydryl-specific. Comparison of chemical modification data obtained in this laboratory using a variety of sulfhydryl-specific reagents has been used to assess chemical features of individual cysteine environments. Effects of the maleimide reagents on biological activity have been determined. Only the fluorophore N-(3-pyrene)maleimide has significant effect; this agent selectively perturbs repressor's ability to bind to operator DNA. This result suggests that regions of protein structure surrounding 1 or more of the cysteine residues possess determinants required for normal operator DNA binding.     

Chemical modification of arginine residues in the lactose repressor

The lactose repressor protein was chemically modified with 2,3-butanedione and phenylglyoxal. Arginine reaction was quantitated by either amino acid analysis or incorporation of 14C-labeled phenylglyoxal. Inducer binding activity was unaffected by the modification of arginine residues, while both operator and nonspecific DNA binding activities were diminished, although to differing degrees. The correlation of the decrease in DNA binding activities with the modification of approximately 1-2 equiv of arginine per monomer suggests increased reactivity of a functionally essential residue(s). For both reagents, operator DNA binding activity was protected by the presence of calf thymus DNA, and the extent of reaction with phenylglyoxal was simultaneously diminished. This protection presumably results from steric restriction of reagent access to an arginine(s) that is (are) essential for DNA binding interactions. These experiments suggest that there is (are) an essential reactive arginine(s) critical for repressor binding to DNA.     

A mutant lactose repressor with altered inducer and operator binding parameters

The lactose repressor protein from the mutant Escherichia coli BG185 contains valine at position 81 instead of alanine. Spectroscopic, chemical and direct binding measurements demonstrate that the BG185 protein exhibits properties similar to the wild-type repressor-inducer complex. Kinetic measurements of inducer binding to BG185 repressor yielded rate constants that were more than two orders of magnitude smaller than those observed for wild-type repressor; these results suggest that the structural transitions required for inducer binding are markedly impaired by the mutation. The fluorescence spectral shift in response to inducer binding was identical for mutant and wild-type proteins. This identity indicates direct effects of inducer binding on the tryptophan(s) near the sugar binding site rather than environmental changes consequent to conformational shifts. Analogy to the bacterial sugar binding proteins suggest that the Ala to Val change at position 81 in BG185 repressor yields a molecule that is fixed in a closed, sugar-binding conformation.     

Modification of tyrosine residues of the lactose repressor protein.

Reaction of the lactose repressor protein from Escherichia coli with high molar excesses (up to 800 fold) of tetranitromethane resulted in modification of tyrosine residues in the amino-terminal and core regions of the molecule. Tyrosines 7 and 17 exhibit significant reactivity at low levels (5-10 fold molar excess) of tetranitromethane. The loss of operator binding activity upon nitration at these low concentrations of reagent indicates involvement of these two tyrosines in the binding process. Inducer binding activity was maintained at approx. 90% of unreacted repressor for all excesses of reagent studied. Addition of inducer to the repressor prior to reaction resulted in decreased modification of tyrosines in the core region, but anti-inducers did not affect the reaction significantly. The effect of inducers on the pattern of reaction apparently reflects the conformational change which occurs upon binding of these ligands. Acetylation of the repressor protein with N-acetylimidazole modified lysines and tyrosines with complete loss of operator binding activity and retention of 75-80% of inducer binding activity.     

Structure of a monomeric mutant of the HIV-1 capsid protein

The capsid protein (CA) of HIV-1 plays a significant role in the assembly of the immature virion and is the critical building block of its mature capsid. Thus, there has been significant interest in the CA protein as a target in the design of inhibitors of early and late stage events in the HIV-1 replication cycle. However, because of its inherent flexibility from the interdomain linker and the monomer-dimer equilibrium in solution, the HIV-1 wild-type CA monomer has defied structural determinations by X-ray crystallography and nuclear magnetic resonance spectroscopy. Here we report the detailed solution structure of full-length HIV-1 CA using a monomeric mutant that, though noninfective, preserves many of the critical properties of the wild-type protein. The structure shows independently folded N-terminal (NTD) and C-terminal domains (CTD) joined by a flexible linker. The CTD shows some differences from that of the dimeric wild-type CTD structures. This study provides insights into the molecular mechanism of the wild-type CA dimerization critical for capsid assembly. The monomeric mutant allows investigation of interactions of CA with human cellular proteins exploited by HIV-1, directly in solution without the complications associated with the monomer-dimer equilibrium of the wild-type protein. This structure also permits the design of inhibitors directed at a novel target, viz., interdomain flexibility, as well as inhibitors that target multiple interdomain interactions critical for assembly and interactions of CA with host cellular proteins that play significant roles within the replication cycle of HIV-1.     

Evidence for leucine zipper motif in lactose repressor protein

Amino acid sequence homology between the carboxyl-terminal segment of the lac repressor and eukaryotic proteins containing the leucine zipper motif with associated basic DNA binding region (bZIP) has been identified. Based on the sequence comparisons, site-specific mutations have been generated at two sites predicted to participate in oligomer formation based on the three-leucine heptad repeat at positions 342, 349, and 356. Leu342----Ala, Leu349----Ala, and Leu349----Pro have been isolated and their oligomeric state and ligand binding properties evaluated. These mutant proteins do not form tetramers but exist as stable dimers with inducer binding comparable with the wild-type protein. Apparent operator affinities for lac repressor proteins with mutations in the proposed bZIP domain were significantly lower than the corresponding wild-type values. For these dimeric mutant proteins, the monomer-dimer equilibrium is linked to the apparent operator binding constant. The values for the monomer-monomer binding constant and for the intrinsic operator binding constant for the dimer cannot be resolved from measurements of the observed Kd for operator DNA. Further studies on these proteins are in progress.     

Dissociation of the lactose repressor protein tetramer using high hydrostatic pressure

Dissociation of lac repressor tetramer by high hydrostatic pressures was monitored with intrinsic tryptophan fluorescence. With the assumption of complete dissociation to monomer, tryptophan polarization data gave delta V a approximately 170 mL/mol and the concentration for 50% tetramer dissociation, C1/2, was 3.8 X 10(-8) M. Upon addition of inducer, the calculated delta V a increased to approximately 220 mL/mol and the C1/2 decreased to approximately 1 X 10(-8) M, a free energy difference of approximately 0.7 kcal. These results indicate a modest stabilization of the tetramer by the presence of inducer. Monitoring the average energy of tryptophan emission demonstrated that tetramer dissociation takes place over the same range of pressures as evidenced by the polarization data and IPTG dissociation can be more or less superimposed upon tetramer dissociation depending upon the ligand concentration used. Although the two transitions cannot be separated entirely, the delta V a for the region of the pressure dependence dominated by ligand dissociation was 69 mL/mol, an unexpectedly large value. For tetramer modified with methyl methanethiosulfonate, subunit dissociation was shifted to much higher pressures and IPTG dissociation did not occur. The delta V a for subunit association was calculated as approximately 160 mL/mol, and the C1/2 was 3.5 X 10(-9) M. Interactions at the subunit interface of the modified protein are apparently stronger than in the unmodified protein. The absence of inducer dissociation from the MMTS-modified tetramer by the application of high hydrostatic pressure suggests that the volume change for inducer binding to the modified protein is much smaller than that observed for the unmodified repressor.     

Thermodynamic analysis of unfolding and dissociation in lactose repressor protein.

Lactose repressor protein, regulator of lac enzyme expression in Escherichia coli, maintains its structure and function at extremely low protein concentrations (<10(-)12 M). To examine the unfolding and dissociation of this tetrameric protein, structural transitions in the presence of varying concentrations of urea were monitored by fluorescence and circular dichroism spectroscopy, analytical ultracentrifugation, and functional activities. The spectroscopic data demonstrated a single cooperative transition with no evidence of folded dimeric or monomeric species of this protein. These spectroscopic transitions were reversible provided a long incubation step was employed in the refolding reaction at approximately 3 M urea. The refolded repressor protein possessed the same functional and structural properties as wild-type repressor protein. The absence of concentration dependence expected for tetramer dissociation to unfolded monomer (M4 <--> 4U) in the spectral transitions indicates that the disruption of the monomer-monomer interface and monomer unfolding are a concerted reaction (M4 <--> U4) that may occur prior to the dissociation of the dimer-dimer interface. Thus, we propose that the unfolded monomers remain associated at the C-terminus by the 4-helical coiled-coil structure that forms the dimer-dimer interface and that this intermediate is the end point detected in the spectral transitions. Efforts to confirm the existence of this species by ultracentrifugation were inhibited by the aggregation of this intermediate. Based upon these observations, the wild-type fluorescence and CD data were fit to a model, M4 <--> U4, which resulted in an overall DeltaG degrees for unfolding of 40 kcal/mol. Using a mutant protein, K84L, in which the monomer-monomer interface is stabilized, sedimentation equilibrium results demonstrated that the dimer-dimer interface of lac repressor could persist at higher levels of urea than the monomer-monomer interface. The tetramer-dimer transition monitored using this mutant repressor yields a DeltaG degrees of 20.4 kcal/mol. Using this free energy value for the dissociation process of U4 <--> 4U, an overall free energy change of approximately 60 kcal/mol was calculated for dissociation of all interfaces and unfolding of the tetrameric lac repressor, reflecting the exceptional stability of this protein.     

Tryptic core protein of lactose repressor binds operator DNA.

The core protein produced by mild proteolytic digestion of lactose repressor protein has been purified from native repressor by chromatography on phosphocellulose. The core protein isolated in this manner binds to operator DNA with an apparent dissociation constant of 10(-7) M, and the observed binding is decreased by the presence of inducer. Competition studies with nonspecific DNA indicate that the binding species in the core protein preparations is neither intact lactose repressor nor mixed tetramers containing varying numbers of intact NH2-terminal regions. This conclusion is supported by experiments designed to measure the rate of dissociation of the core protein from the operator DNA. Calculations based on the assumption that the isolated core protein binds similarly to the corresponding region in intact repressor protein indicate that the core region contributes approximately 40 to 50% of the energy of binding to operator DNA. Furthermore, the change in operator affinity upon inducer binding to core accounts for a minimum of 60% of the free energy change in binding to operator observed for the native protein. The demonstration that core protein binds to operator DNA requires a re-evaluation of the various models for repressor binding to DNA. A possible model based on the available information is presented.     

Characterization of a lactose permease mutant that binds IIAGlc in the absence of ligand

Enzyme IIA(Glc) of the Escherichia coli phosphoenolpyruvate:glucose phosphotransferase system plays a direct role in regulating inducible transport systems. Dephosphorylated IIA(Glc) binds directly to lactose permease in a reaction that requires binding of a galactosidic substrate. A double-Cys mutation (Ile129 --> Cys/Lys131 --> Cys) was introduced into helix IV of the permease near the IIA(Glc) binding site in cytoplasmic loop IV/V and in the vicinity of the galactoside binding site at the interface of helices IV, V, and VIII. The mutant no longer requires galactoside for IIA(Glc) binding as demonstrated by both a [(125)I]IIA(Glc) binding assay and a newly developed fluorescence anisotropy assay. Further characterization of the mutant shows that it binds substrate with high affinity, but is almost completely defective in all modes of translocation across the cytoplasmic membrane. The data are consistent with the interpretation that the double mutant is locked in an inward-facing conformation.     

Aggregation of a slow-folding mutant of a beta-clam protein proceeds through a monomeric nucleus

Mechanistic understanding of protein aggregation, leading either to structured amyloid fibrils or to amorphous inclusion body-like deposits, should facilitate the identification of potential therapeutic intervention strategies for the devastating amyloid-based diseases. Here we focus on the in vitro aggregation of a slow-folding mutant of the beta-clam protein, cellular retinoic acid-binding protein I (P39A CRABP I), which forms inclusion bodies when expressed in Escherichia coli. Aggregation was monitored by observing the fluorescence of a fluorescein-based biarsenical dye (FlAsH) that ligates to a tetra-Cys motif, here incorporated into a flexible Omega-loop. The fluorescence signal of FlAsH on the tetra-Cys-containing P39A CRABP I is sensitive to whether this protein is native or unfolded, and was used in combination with other techniques to follow aggregate formation. The aggregation time course is compatible with a nucleation-dependent polymerization model, and detailed kinetic analysis showed that the energetically unfavorable nucleus is monomeric. A similar conclusion was reached previously for poly(Gln) species [Chen, S., Ferrone, F. A., and Wetzel, R. (2002) Proc. Natl. Acad. Sci. U.S.A. 99, 11884-11889] and points to an unfavorable equilibrium between the misfolded intermediate and the bulk pool of monomers as causative in aggregation. The P39A mutation, which removes a helix-stop signal, may slow closure of the beta-barrel in P39A CRABP I relative to the wild type, leaving it vulnerable to aggregation. Wide-angle X-ray scattering showed that the amorphous aggregates formed by the aggregation-prone intermediates of P39A CRABP I contain predominantly beta-strands structured in a lamellar fashion with 10.03 A spacing between adjacent beta-sheets.