Social and Spatial Segregation in Alpine Ibex (Capra ibex) in Bargy,French Alps

Outside the rut, a gradual social and spatial segregation was observed between the sexes as male Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) aged. In addition, males joined similar-age peer groups and segregated spatially as the age difference increased. The patterns varied seasonally, influenced by biological and ecological events. During the rut, males and females intermingled and used greatly overlapping ranges. Males ≥ 9 years first left female groups but social and spatial segregation were not complete until May. Younger males shifted to male groups more gradually. Females and males over 2 years of age used almost exclusive ranges in summer and early autumn. Social grouping and range overlap between ibex classes were correlated outside the rut. Grouping and spatial overlap between young and old males were negatively related to association with females.     

Male Alpine Chamois Occupy Territories at Hotspots Before the Mating Season

Ungulate mating systems vary broadly both between and within species. Studies on mating systems in different habitats can provide clues to the ecological factors determining this diversity. Despite its abundance in the European Alps and its importance as a game species, surprisingly little is known about the mating system of Alpine chamois Rupicapra rupicapra rupicapra. We tested the hypothesis that adult males first defend mating territories in late spring, when females segregate from males and well before the Nov. rut. In the Gran Paradiso National Park (north‐western Italian Alps), adult males shared a winter range but occupied individual ranges in summer and early autumn. Males were more aggressive to each other in the summer than in the spring. A strong site fidelity from one year to the next was found for the summer and early autumn months. Those males that occupied the same territories both in the summer and during the rut (Nov.) appeared to be at hotspots, attractive to females during the rut because of reduced snow cover. Other males appeared to cluster around these hotspots during the rut. Territories that were first occupied during the summer were visited by more females than those that were not established until the rut began. Our results suggest that the mating system of this population of Alpine chamois consists of the early occupation of clustered mating territories. The early establishment of mating territories in areas frequented by females during the rut may lead to reproductive benefits for male chamois.     

To Feed or Not to Feed? Testing Different Hypotheses on Rut‐Induced Hypophagia in a Mountain Ungulate

In many ruminant species, males dramatically reduce forage intake during the rut. To date, different hypotheses have been suggested to explain this rut‐induced hypophagia. To assess the predictions of the main hypotheses, we analysed Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) activity budget and compared the behaviour of males and females before, during, and after the rut. Only males spent significantly less time foraging during the rut than outside of it, whereas females allocated a similar proportion of time to foraging before, during, and after the rut. Our results showed that during the rut males also reduced lying time, while the ratio of time spent feeding to time spent lying did not change for males among periods. In conclusion, during the breeding season males maximized energy intake when not actively engaged in mating activities and rut‐induced hypophagia appeared to result from time budget constraints generated by mating‐related activities. Accordingly, the foraging constraint hypothesis seems appropriate to explain this phenomenon in Alpine ibex males.     

Low genotyping error rates in wild ungulate faeces sampled in winter

We show that Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) and Corsican mouflon (Ovis musimon) faeces yield useful DNA for microsatellite analysis, however, we detected higher genotyping error rates for spring faeces than for winter faeces. We quantified the genotyping error rate by repeatedly genotyping four microsatellites. Respectively, 99 and 95% of mouflon and ibex genotyping repetitions provided a correct genotype using winter samples, whereas spring samples provided only 52 and 59% correct genotypes. Thus, before starting a noninvasive study, we recommend that researchers conduct a pilot study to quantify genotyping error rates for each season, population and species to be studied.     

Space use of common genets<Emphasis Type="Italic">Genetta genetta</Emphasis> in a Mediterranean habitat of northeastern Spain: differences between sexes and seasons

The seasonal home range size and spatial relationships of 16 adult genetsGenetta genetta Linnaeus, 1758 (6 males and 10 females) were estimated in a Mediterranean habitat of northeastern Spain. Genets minimum density was estimated as 0.98/km². Mean annual home range was 113.1 ha in males and of 72.0 ha in females. Males had larger home ranges than females in all seasons, but differences were only significant in winter. Home range size changed seasonally and showed a similar pattern in both sexes, with lower values in summer (males — 41.2 ha, females — 29.0 ha) and maximum ones in spring (males — 78.8 ha, females — 56.1 ha). Animals displayed spatial fidelity throughout the year. Core areas (MCP50) represented 27% and 19% of total home range size for males and females, respectively. Resting home ranges (based on locations of inactive animals) were 9 times lower than overall home range size. Individuals of the same sex overlapped less than individuals of different sexes, especially with regard to core areas, which showed almost no overlap. The results obtained suggest that (1) different factors are likely to affect the space use of genets, such as body mass, food abundance and reproductive cycle; (2) genets use space in a heterogeneous way, with areas of greater activity than others within their home range; (3) there was intrasexual segregation with regard to space use.     

Home range patterns of male fallow deer<Emphasis Type="Italic">Dama dama</Emphasis> in a sub-Mediterranean habitat

From 1996 to 2000 the home ranges of 14 male fallow deerDama dama (Linnaeus, 1758) were studied in the San Rossore Preserve (Italy) using radio-telemetry. Mean size of annual home ranges was 588.9 ± 278.9 ha, calculated by MCP, and 337.5 ± 178.9 ha, using Kernel method, and was larger than that reported in published literature to date. The size of the seasonal home range estimated with the MCP method was 90.6 ± 129.1 ha during spring, 73.7 ± 67.9 ha in summer, 465.0 ± 230.6 ha in fall, and 65.6 ± 60.6 ha in winter. The Kernel method gave 84.7 ± 140.2 ha in spring, 61.3 ± 64.6 ha in summer, 306.0 ± 170.5 ha in fall, and 46.5 ± 44.0 ha during winter. The seasonal analysis suggested that bucks tended to occupy the same particular area from winter to summer, which was related to rich trophic resources, even despite of anthropic disturbance. During autumn, males reached the rutting site (a lek) that was 4 km distant from the areas occupied during the other three seasons. The lekking behaviour was the main factor influencing home range size.     

Influence of the Kid on Space Use and Habitat Selection of Female Alpine Ibex

Abstract: Mammalian females change their behavior during the last stages of pregnancy and during the weaning as a response to new energetic requirements and antipredator behavior. From March 2001 to December 2004, we studied the effects of parturition and weaning on home-range sizes and habitat selection in 28 female Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) in a 1,700-ha free area in the Gran Paradiso National Park (Western Italian Alps). We calculated Kernel home range enclosing 95% of each female's locations according to seasonal and bimonthly timescales. Pregnancy did not seem to modify spatial behavior. Lactating females showed smaller home ranges than nonlactating ones after the birth period in June-July. Hot summers slowed kids' growth and prolonged maternal care, modifying mothers' behavior. In summer 2003, which was hotter and drier than usual, weaning females showed even smaller home ranges. Because of their use of antipredator tactics during the weaning season, lactating females showed a higher use of safer habitats, such as rocky slopes. Our results are consistent with the findings of previous cervid and bovid studies, and they suggest that ungulate mothers may move to suboptimal, but safer, habitats during weaning to reduce the predation risk for their offspring.     

Techniques for noninvasive genetic monitoring of Alpine Ibex <Emphasis Type="Italic">Capra ibex</Emphasis>

Noninvasive sampling is of increasing importance for the molecular genetic monitoring of wild animal populations, although reduced quality and quantity of such samples’ DNA can affect genetic data and their subsequent interpretation. Consequently, we performed a pilot study to establish a feasible approach for the genetic investigation of free-ranging Alpine ibex Capra ibex Linnaeus, 1758 populations. Establishing an ibex-specific PCR-RFLP based on Cytochrome b gene differences allowed the discrimination of noninvasive ibex samples from those of other sympatric ungulates. In addition, we established a quantitative PCR for ibex samples. The quantification of 35 faecal samples clearly exhibited a strong variability of DNA contents among samples and individuals. Furthermore, we performed threefold genotyping experiments on six microsatellite loci to determine the extent of genotyping errors in reference to blood samples of the respective individuals. The analyses exhibited a strong dependence of erroneous microsatellite genotypes on the starting amount of template DNA. Variability in reliability was observed between individual loci, resulting in a mandatory high DNA concentration necessary for consistent genotyping. This study serves as basis for further ibex research and we propose the application of DNA quantification of faecal samples to focus genotyping efforts solely on suitable samples.     

Effects of climate on population fluctuations of ibex

Predicting the effects of the expected changes in climate on the dynamics of populations require that critical periods for climate‐induced changes in population size are identified. Based on time series analyses of 26 Swiss ibex (Capra ibex) populations, we show that variation in winter climate affected the annual changes in population size of most of the populations after accounting for the effects of density dependence and demographic stochasticity. In addition, precipitation during early summer also influenced the population fluctuations. This suggests that the major influences of climate on ibex population dynamics operated either through loss of individuals during winter or early summer, or through an effect on fecundity. However, spatial covariation in these climate variables was not able to synchronize the population fluctuations of ibex over larger distances, probably due to large spatial heterogeneity in the effects of single climate variables on different populations. Such spatial variation in the influence of the same climate variable on the local population dynamics suggests that predictions of influences of climate change need to account for local differences in population dynamical responses to climatic conditions.     

Temperature constraints on foraging behaviour of male Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) in summer

In arctic and alpine environments, warm summer temperatures may force a reduction in foraging time of large herbivores, whose tolerance for heat is lower than for species adapted to warmer weather. We constructed time budgets for marked ibex (Capra ibex) males over two summers to test whether warm temperatures constrained foraging behaviour and forced altitudinal migrations. As daily temperature and solar radiation increased, feeding activity was reduced at midday and evening, but increased in the early morning, probably to anticipate for an expected reduction in foraging later in the day. With increasing temperature and solar radiation, ibex moved to higher elevations where they spent very little time feeding. Changes in forage quality and availability could not explain altitudinal migration. Temperatures above 15–20°C apparently result in heat discomfort in male Alpine ibex. As temperature and solar radiation increased, older and larger ibex spent less time feeding during daylight and showed a steeper decrease in feeding time than younger and smaller ibex. Larger males may be more sensitive to temperature and solar radiation, or may have more flexibility in allocating time to different activities, given their lower relative energetic requirements. Electronic supplementary material  The online version of this article (doi:) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

Home range and activity patterns of male red deer (Cervus elaphus L.) in the alps

Summary From 1978 to 1981 in the Bavarian Alps (Southern West Germany) the home range and activity patterns of nine male red deer have been studied using radio-telemetry. The home range patterns definetely change with age. Younger stags first follow the patterns of their mothers, then often emigrate from these home ranges and establish new ones elsewhere. Except for the change in range at about 2^1/2 years of age, these patterns seem to be very constant in both spatial as well as seasonal position and the size of the home ranges. Winter and rutting ranges are relatively small, averaging 113 ha and 134 ha, respectively, whereas the mean size of the home ranges used from spring to autumn amounts to some 386 ha. Just as do the home range patterns, so also do activity patterns exhibit a marked annual cycle. The daily sum total of activity varies from about 9 h in winter to some 15 h in summer. The daily distribution of activity reveals a typical bimodal 24-h rhythm which in the course of the year also shows modifications according to the seasonally varying LD-ratio. In the discussion, earlier results on female red deer are compared to those of this study. Notable differences between sexes occur in the home range patterns and the annual cycle of daily activity.     

Can seasonal home‐range size in pike Esox lucius predict excursion distance?

The hypothesis that vagility, or tendency to move, in pike Esox lucius can be predicted from individual home range was tested using telemetry. Independently of fish size, mean annual excursion distance was positively correlated to winter (0·02–0·95 ha) and spring (0·02–0·59 ha) home ranges but not summer and autumn home ranges.     

Seasonal home range use by Japanese monkeys in the snowy Shiga heights

Between December 1974 and November 1975 (157 days), it was found that seasonal home range changes in the Shiga C troop were closely related to food changes, vegetation, and the existence of neighbouring troops. The detailed points clarified may be summarized as follows: (1) The seasonal home range sizes from winter to autumn were 1.23 km², 1.46 km², 1.69 km², and 1.21 km², respectively, and the annual size was 3.66 km²; (2) The food changed from bark and buds of trees in winter to young leaves and stems of grasses and trees in spring and summer, and fruits in autumn; (3) Each home range clearly changed according to the phenology of the plants used as food at each season; (4) The food abundance for the monkeys was extremely poor in winter, relatively poor in summer, plentiful in spring, and the best in autumn; and (5) The Shiga C troop and the neighbouring Shiga B₂ troop overlap in their home ranges in spring and autumn, but are separated during winter and summer.     

Population Structure and Ranging Patterns of <Emphasis Type="Italic">Rhinopithecus roxellana</Emphasis> in Zhouzhi National Nature Reserve,Shaanxi, China

We describe the population structure and ranging patterns of a troop of Sichuan snub-nosed monkeys (Rhinopithecus roxellana) based on a study conducted between November 2002 and November 2003 in Zhouzhi National Nature Reserve, Shaanxi Province, China. The troop comprised several 1-male units and an all-male unit. Opportunistic censuses revealed that there were ≥112 individuals in the troop. The adult sex ratio (male vs. female) was 1:3.7. The ratios of adults to immatures and infants to adult females were 1:0.7 and 1:2, respectively. Via a grid system, we estimated the home range of the troop to be 18.3 km², of which 7.4 km² was the core area. The subjects exhibited distinct seasonal ranging patterns. Their movement across the home range was extensive in spring and restricted in autumn. In addition, reuse of quadrats was highest in winter and lowest in spring in comparison with other seasons. The daily path length (DPL) varied from .75 to 5 km, with a mean of 2.1 km. Seasonal analysis showed that DPL is significantly shorter in winter than in spring or summer; however, there is no significant difference between the DPLs of spring and summer or those of spring and autumn. The monkeys occupied elevations 1500–2600 m above sea level; the annual mean of altitudinal range is 2137 m. Contrary to early studies that reported Rhinopithecus roxellana migrates to lower elevations in winter, we found no evidence supporting a seasonal altitudinal shift. Using the highest troop count and home range estimate, and considering the extent of range overlap between neighboring troops, we calculated the population density and biomass of Rhinopithecus roxellana to be 7.2 individuals/km² and 68.3 kg/km², respectively. The temporal and spatial distribution of food resources may be the most important determinant of ranging behavior in Rhinopithecus roxellana, though understanding the relationship between resource distribution and seasonal range use may require further investigation.     

Alpine ibex males grow large horns at no survival cost for most of their lifetime

Large horns or antlers require a high energy allocation to produce and carry both physiological and social reproductive costs. Following the principle of energy allocation that implies trade-offs among fitness components, growing large weapons early in life should thus reduce future growth and survival. Evidence for such costs is ambiguous, however, partly because individual heterogeneity can counterbalance trade-offs. Individuals with larger horns or antlers may be of better quality and thus have a greater capacity to survive. We investigated trade-offs between male early horn growth and future horn growth, baseline mortality, onset of actuarial senescence, and rate of ageing in an Alpine ibex (Capra ibex ibex) population. Horn growth of males in early life was positively correlated to their horn length throughout their entire life. Cohort variation and individual heterogeneity both accounted for among-individual variation in horn length, suggesting both long-lasting effects of early life conditions and individual-specific horn growth trajectories. Early horn growth did not influence annual survival until 12 years of age, indicating that males do not invest in horn growth at survival costs over most of their lifetime. However, males with fast-growing horns early in life tended to have lower survival at very old ages. Individual heterogeneity, along with the particular life-history tactic of male ibex (weak participation to the rut until an old age after which they burn out in high mating investment), are likely to explain why the expected trade-off between horn growth and survival does not show up, at least until very old ages.     

European springtime temperature synchronises ibex horn growth across the eastern Swiss Alps

Direct effects of climate change on animal physiology, and indirect impacts from disruption of seasonal synchrony and breakdown of trophic interactions are particularly severe in Arctic and Alpine ecosystems. Unravelling biotic from abiotic drivers, however, remains challenging because high‐resolution animal population data are often limited in space and time. Here, we show that variation in annual horn growth (an indirect proxy for individual performance) of 8043 male Alpine ibex (Capra ibex) over the past four decades is well synchronised among eight disjunct colonies in the eastern Swiss Alps. Elevated March to May temperatures, causing premature melting of Alpine snowcover, earlier plant phenology and subsequent improvement of ibex food resources, fuelled annual horn growth. These results reveal dependency of local trophic interactions on large‐scale climate dynamics, and provide evidence that declining herbivore performance is not a universal response to global warming even for high‐altitude populations that are also harvested.     

Estimating Alpine ibex Capra ibex abundance from photographic sampling

Monitoring procedures for Alpine ibex Capra ibex are limited in habitats with reduced visibility and when physical capture and marking of the animals is not intended. Photographic sampling, involving using camera‐trap data and identifying ibex from natural markings, was adopted with capture‐recapture models to estimate the abundance of ibex in Austria. The software CAPTURE's model produced an average capture probability of 0.44 with an estimate of 34–51 ibex and a mean population size of 38 ibex. This first study showed the applicability of photographic capture‐recapture techniques to estimate the abundance of ibex based on their natural markings.     

Annual and seasonal space use of different age classes of female wild boar Sus scrofa L.

In a radiotelemetric study, we analysed space use of 24 female specimens (14 family groups and 14 nonreproductive yearling females) out of 23 wild boar groups for periods between 3 and 39 months. Generally, wild boar used relatively small areas, showed high site fidelity but also a strong individual variation of home ranges, indicating a high flexibility in space use. Although age-specific differences were not statistically significant, female yearlings tended to have larger mean annual home ranges (1,185 ha MCP) than animals ranging in family groups (771 ha). Yearlings also showed a stronger shifting from spring to summer home ranges (2,345 m) and a tendency towards larger home range sizes in summer (791 ha MCP), compared to family groups (shift 1,766 m, MCP 461 ha). Yearlings displayed a dislocation of about 1 km of the annual centre in the first year after dividing from the mother. In contrast, in adults older than 2 years, the dislocation of the annual center was only 240 m.     

Home ranges of raccoon dogs (<Emphasis Type="Italic">Nyctereutes procyonoides</Emphasis>, Gray, 1834) in Southern Brandenburg,Germany

The raccoon dog Nyctereutes procyonoides, a medium-sized canid, is a representative of the East Asian fauna and has been introduced to Europe during the years 1928–1953. Today, this alien carnivore is a widespread species in Eastern Europe, Finland and Germany. In our study, we determined home range sizes of raccoon dogs in an agricultural landscape in Northeast Germany between 2001 and 2004 by very high frequency radio tracking. Those data are useful for estimation of predator densities in respect to conservation of biodiversity and also to develop models for disease and parasite transmission. Yearly average home range sizes were calculated as 95% fixed kernel: 1.83 km² ± 1.54 and as 50% fixed kernel (=core areas): 0.50 km² ± 0.49. We documented seasonal differences in home range sizes as well as overlapping of home ranges from 0.65% up to 67%. Some individuals’ home ranges recorded during the same season showed a clear shifting between different years. Abandoned badger dens, located in the core areas of raccoon dogs home ranges, were important during the whole year and particularly used in the winter period. Therefore, distribution of those dens had some influence on the spatial distribution of raccoon dogs in the study area. Based on mean annual home range size, we estimated the mean local population density during winter as 1.1 individuals per square kilometre and during summer as 4.90 individuals per square kilometre.     

Parallel Lasers for Remote Measurements of Morphological Traits

Abstract: Animal ecology research could benefit from the measurement of individual morphological traits. In bovids, male horn size often correlates with annual reproductive success, is sensitive to resource abundance, and could be a predictor of survival. However, live captures are costly, involve some risk of injury or substantial disturbance to the animals, and are impossible in many situations. To remotely measure horn growth of free-ranging Alpine ibex (Capra ibex), I designed an aluminum frame that holds parallel laser pointers and a digital camera. I took digital pictures of ibex horns and calculated horn growth based on the fixed distance between the 2 laser points. This simple and accurate technique could benefit many ecological studies that require linear measurements, such as shoulder height, body length, leg length, or fin length. It could also help measure body features (e.g., fur or skin patterns, scars), increasing the reliability of individual photographic identification.