Biochronology of the first hominid remains in Europe using the vole Mimomys savini: Fuente Nueva 3 and Barranco León D,Guadix-Baza Basin,south-eastern Spain

The sites of Barranco León D (BL-D) and Fuente Nueva 3 (FN-3) in the Guadix-Baza Basin (Granada, Spain), together with the site of Sima del Elefante in the Sierra de Atapuerca (Burgos, Spain), constitute one of the oldest records of the earliest hominid population in the European continent west of Dmanisi (Georgia, Lesser Caucasus). In the Guadix-Baza Basin, evidence of human occupation has been found to date in the form of lithic industry (Mode 1) and cut marks in large-mammal fossil remains (mainly of hippopotamuses and elephants), and recently a human tooth considered as the oldest in Europe has been discovered. Although in the case of Sima del Elefante there is unanimity among the scientific community regarding the chronology of the unit in which the hominid remains were found (Unit TE9c, 1.22 Ma), there is continuing debate on the chronology of the sites of the Guadix-Baza Basin (FN-3 and BL-D). This applies especially to BL-D, as the numerical datings published for this site have a very high error range (1.4 ± 0.38 Ma). In this paper, the chronology of these two sites is determined using as a marker the morphological and morphometric changes undergone by Mimomys savini in its first lower molar (m1) over the course of its evolutionary history. It has been possible to confirm that the oldest human presence in the Guadix-Baza Basin and at Sima del Elefante (Atapuerca) share a similar chronology, dated to between 1.1 and 1.4 Ma. Apparently, the oldest site with human remains in Europe is seen to be BL-D, dated to 1.26 ± 0.13 Ma, followed by Level TE9c, dated to 1.22 ± 0.16 Ma, and FN-3, dated to 1.20 ± 0.12 Ma.     

The oldest human fossil in Europe,from Orce (Spain)

The Orce region has one of the best late Pliocene and early Pleistocene continental paleobiological records of Europe. It is situated in the northeastern sector of the intramontane Guadix-Baza Basin (Granada, Andalusia, southern Spain). Here we describe a new fossil hominin tooth from the site of Barranco León, dated between 1.02 and 1.73 Ma (millions of years ago) by Electron Spin Resonance (ESR), which, in combination with paleomagnetic and biochronologic data, is estimated to be close to 1.4 Ma. While the range of dates obtained from these various methods overlaps with those published for the Sima del Elefante hominin locality (1.2 Ma), the overwhelming majority of evidence points to an older age. Thus, at the moment, the Barranco León hominin is the oldest from Western Europe.     

Carnivores from the Early Pleistocene hominid-bearing Trinchera Dolina 6 (Sierra de Atapuerca, Spain).

The carnivores from Trinchera Dolina level 6 (TD6) in Sierra de Atapuerca include Ursus sp., Crocuta crocuta, Mustela palerminea, Lynx sp., Canis mosbachensis and Vulpes praeglacialis. Approximately 80 human remains belonging to Homo antecessor were found in the Aurora Stratum (AS): located in the upper part of the TD6 level (TD6, T36-43). The carnivores from AS are taxonomically similar to the rest of the TD6 level, differing only in the occurrence of Lynx sp. The spotted hyaena (Crocuta crocuta) inhabited the Atapuerca Sierra during the Early Pleistocene and up to the Middle Pleistocene, after which it is absent. According to palaeomagnetic, U/Th and ESR results, the fossils from TD6 are dated to the Early Pleistocene, which is the earliest certain occurrence in Europe of Crocuta crocuta. It is associated with Mimomys savini, the arrival of which in Europe can be correlated with the beginning of the Early Biharian. Crocuta crocuta may have arrived during the late Early Pleistocene ("Bavelian complex"), and subsequently invaded the rest of the continent during the Middle and Late Pleistocene. Atapuerca TD6-AS represents the most ancient deposits in Europe where Homo and spotted hyaenas coexisted and, they probably competed ecologically. The carnivores from TD6 are biochronologically consistent with the end of the Early Pleistocene or early Cromerian (corresponding with the Biharian biochron). The timespan could correspond with oxygen isotope stages 19, 20 or 21.     

The Atapuerca sites and the ibeas hominids

The Atapuerca railway Trench and Ibeas sites near Burgos, Spain, are cave fillings that include a series of deposits ranging from below the Matuyama/Bruhnes reversal up to the end of Middle Pleistocene. The lowest fossil-bearing bed in the Trench contains an assemblage of large and small Mammals includingMimomys savini, Pitymys gregaloides, Pliomys episcopalis, Crocuta crocuta, Dama sp. and Megacerini; the uppermost assemblage includesCanis lupus, Lynx spelaea, Panthera (Leo) fossilis, Felis sylvestris, Equus caballus steinbeimensis, E.c. germanicus, Pitymys subterraneus, Microtus arvalis agrestis, Pliomys lenki, and alsoPanthera toscana, Dicerorbinus hemitoechus, Bison schoetensacki, which are equally present in the lowest level. The biostratigraphic correlation and dates of the sites are briefly discussed, as are the paleoclimatic interpretation of the Trench sequences. Stone artifacts are found in several layers; the earliest occurrences correspond to the upper beds containingMimomys savini. A set of preserved human occupation floors has been excavated in the top fossil-bearing beds. The stone-tool assemblages of the upper levels are of upper-medial Acheulean to Charentian tradition. The rich bone breccia SH, in the Cueva Mayor-Cueva del Silo, Ibeas de Juarros, is a derived deposit, due to a mud flow that dispersed and carried the skeletons of many carnivores and humans. The taxa represented are:Ursus deningeri (largely dominant),Panthera (Leo) fossilis, Vulpes vulpes, Homo sapiens var. Several traits of both mandibular and cranial remains are summarized. Preliminary attempts at dating suggest that the Ibeas fossil man is older than the Last Interglacial, or oxygen-isotope stage 5.     

Micromammal biostratigraphy of the Upper Miocene to lowest Pleistocene continental deposits of the Guadix basin,southern Spain

Minwer‐Barakat, R., García‐Alix, A., Suárez, E.M., Freudenthal, M. & Viseras, C. 2012 xx xx: Micromammal biostratigraphy of the Upper Miocene to lowest Pleistocene continental deposits of the Guadix basin, southern Spain. Lethaia, Vol. 45, pp. 594–614. Recent study of the small mammals (rodents and insectivores) from several fossil‐bearing sites situated in the central sector of the Guadix Basin (Southern Spain) has notably increased the knowledge of the mammal assemblages that existed in Southern Iberia from the latest Miocene to the earliest Pleistocene. On the basis of this new information, we propose a biozonation for the continental deposits of the Guadix Basin, which consists of six biozones ranging in age from the late Turolian (MN13) to the early Villanyian (MN17). These biozones, defined according to the rules of the International Stratigraphical Guide, include not only the mentioned recently discovered fossil sites, but also other, previously known, localities of the basin. Finally, we integrate the described biozones in the Neogene Mammal units and the European Land Mammal Ages, correlate them with several classical mammal sites from other Iberian basins and the rest of Europe, and establish an approximate numerical age for the lower and upper limits of each biozone. □Biostratigraphy, Guadix Basin, rodents, insectivores, Upper Miocene, Pliocene, Pleistocene.     

Biochronological implications of the Arvicolidae (Rodentia, Mammalia) from the Lower Pleistocene hominid-bearing level of Trinchera Dolina 6 (TD6, Atapuerca, Spain).

Level TD6 of the Trinchera Dolina Section in the railway cutting of the Sierre de Atapuerca (Trinchera del Ferrocarril) has yielded a rich small mammal assemblage (26 species) in association with fossil human remains of Homo antecessor. The arvicolids of TD6 are identified as: Mimomys savini, Microtus seseae, Stenocranius gregaloides, Terricola arvalidens, Iberomys huescarensis, Allophaiomys chalinei, and Pliomys episcopalis. The rodent association also includes large rodents (i.e., Castor fiber, Marmota sp., and Hystrix refossa) and the small Allocricetus sp., Eliomys helleri, Micromys minutus, and Apodemus aff. flavicollis. The small vertebrate remains also include Insectivora (Beremendia fissidens, Sorex sp, Neomys sp., Crocidura sp., Galemys sp., Talpa sp., Erinaceus sp.), Chiroptera (Miniopterus schreibersii, Myotis sp., Rhinolophus sp.), and Lagomorpha (Oryctolagus sp., Lepus sp.), as well as lizards, birds and amphibians. The H. antecessor remains are derived from a 15 cm thick layer at the top of TD6 (TD6-T36-43), where A. chalinei, H. refossa and Marmota sp. do not occur. The paleomagnetic Matuyama/Brunhes boundary is found in the overlying level TD7 of the Gran Dolina Section. On the basis of the arvicolids, TD6 can be referred to the Biharian biochron. The Matuyama/Brunhes boundary is fixed in the late Biharian (Microtus-Mimomys rodent Superzone). The species M. savini (without M. pusillus), as well as the evolutionary stage of Microtus s.l., are characteristic of the Late Biharian. The evolutionary level of the species M. savini, T. arvalidens, S. gregaloides indicates that TD6 is older than West Runton (type Cromerian). In the Trinchera Dolina Section we are able to calibrate, for the first time, the evolutionary level of important biochronological markers with magnetostratigraphy. We propose that a radiation of Microtus s.l., along with the first appearance of primitive S. gregaloides, T. arvalidens and Iberomys, took place just before the Matuyama/Brunhes boundary. These species can be considered as characteristic elements of early Pleistocene faunas.     

Species-specific albumin in fossil bones from Orce, Granada, Spain

A skull fragment (VM-0) from Orce, Granada, Spain, dated palaeomagnetically at about 1.6 Myr, is thought by some palaeontologist to be hominid, while others maintain it is equid. If hominid, it would be by far the oldest evidence ofHomo in Europe. Immunological studies on residual albumin in this fossil were carried out independently, and with different immunological methods, at the University of California, San Francisco (radioimmunoassay), and at the University of Granada, Spain (enzyme immunoassay). Other fossils attributed to hominids also studied wereVM1960 from Venta Micena, andCV-1 from Cueva Victoria, Murcia, Spain. Undisputed equid and bovid fossils from the same deposits and dated to a similar period as the Orce skull were also analyzed. Our results showed that species-specific albumin can be detected in 1.6 Myr-old hominid, equid and bovid fossils. The albumin from the Orce skull fragment and fromVM-1960 was immunologically closer to human albumin. These findings support the contention that theVM-0 andVM-1960 are hominid and that members of the genusHomo occupied southern Spain 1.6 Myr ago.     

THE AMMONITE GENUS SUTNERIA IN THE UPPER JURASSIC OF EUROPE

Today, the genus Sutneria comprises 14 species, 12 of which have been found in the Submediterranean Upper Jurassic of southern Germany, representing in some cases important stratigraphic marker fossils. In southern Germany, Sutneria appears from the Upper Oxfordian to the Middle Tithonian. It is also represented in the Epicontinental and Sub-mediterranean Upper Jurassic of the Ardèche (southeastern France) and in the Celtiberic (northeastern Spain). But in the typical Mediterranean as well as in the typical Boreal ammonite faunas Sutneria has been unknown up until now. New findings show Sutneria platynota (Lowermost Kimeridgian) in an Ammonitico rosso facies of the Betic Jurassic in southeastern Spain and Sutneria cf. subeumela (Uppermost Lower Kimeridgian) in the stratotype section of the Volgian near Gorodishche, north of Ulyanovsk, USSR. The value of the species of Sutneria as index fossils has been established for areas outside Central Europe as well as for different facies. Como mínimo, doce de las catorce especies actualmente encuadradas en el género Sutneria han sido identificadas en el Jurásico superior de Alemania meridional; los fósiles característicos suministrados por esta formación permiten puntualizar que las especies de Sutneria se localizan en los pisos comprendidos entre el Oxfordiense superior y el Titoniense medio. Las facies epicontinentales y submediterráneas de estos pisos son identicas a las presentadas por el Jurásico superior del SE de Francia (Ardèche) y del NE de España (Cordillera Ibérica) donde tambien ha sido identificada la presencia de Sutneria. Sin embargo, venia siendo desconocida la asociación de este género con la fauna amonítica típicamente mediterránea y boreal hasta que nuevos y afortunados hallazgos han permitido descubrir Sutneria platynota en una facies de Ammonitico rosso correspondiente a la base del Kimeridgiense inferior de la Cordillera Bética (SE. de España) y Sutneria cf. subeumela hacia el techo de Kimeridgiense inferior en el perfil estratotípico del Volgiense cerca de Gorodishche, N. Ulyanovsk (U.R.S.S.); estos hallazgos en facies distintas y alejadas de las de Europa Central parecen evidenciar la significación cronoestratigráfica atribuible a las especies del género Sutneria     

Synthèse biostratigraphique du plio-pléistocène de Guadix-Baza (Province de Granada,Sud-Est de l'Espagne)

In the Guadix-Baza basin, a continental sequence 0214 ranging from the Upper Miocene (Upper Turolian) to the Middle Pleistocene (Cromerian) has been established. An essay of biozonation by means of the Rodent succession is proposed, based on the following biozones: Trilophomys castroi, Mimomys occitanus, Mimomys cappetai, Mimomys cf. reidi, Mimomys ostramosensis, Allophaiomys pliocaenicus, Mimomys savini and Arvicola cantiana.     

Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview

Hallucinogenic Mushrooms in Mexico: An Overview. Psilocybe, with 53 known hallucinogenic species in Mexico, is the most important and diverse group of sacred mushrooms used by Mexican indigenous cultures. Psilocybe caerulescens, known by the present-day Nahuatl Indians as teotlaquilnanácatl, is hypothesized to be the ceremonially-used teonanácatl mushroom cited by Sahagún in the 16th century, the true identity of which has remained obscure for centuries. Correcting a widely disseminated error derived from early published information on Mexican hallucinogenic mushrooms, emphasis is placed on the fact that Panaeolus species have never been used traditionally in Mexico. Reports of the use of species of Amanita, Clavaria, Conocybe, Cordyceps, Dictyophora, Elaphomyces, Gomphus, Lycoperdon, Psathyrella, and Stropharia as sacred or narcotic mushrooms are discussed. A brief history of the discovery of hallucinogenic mushrooms in Mexico is presented, as well as notes on their taxonomy, distribution, and traditional use in Mexico.

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Hongos Alucinógenos en México: Historia, Taxonomia, Distribución Geográfica y Uso Tradicional. Psilocybe, con 53 especies alucinógenas conocidas en México, es el grupo más importante y más diverso de hongos sagrados usados por las culturas indígenas mexicanas. Se propone aquí que Psilocybe caerulescens, nombrado por los nahuatls de hoy día teotlaquilnanácatl, es el hongo ceremonial teonanácatl citado por Sahagún en el siglo XVI, cuya identidad verdadera permanece oscura desde hace siglos. A fin de corregir un error muy diseminado derivado de los primeros datos publicados sobre los hongos alucinógenos mexicanos, se hará hincapié en el hecho de que las especies Paneolus nunca han sido usadas tradicionalmente en México. Se discutirán aquí informes sobre el uso de especies de Amanita, Clavaria, Conocybe, Cordyceps, Dictyophora, Elaphomyces, Gomphus, Lycoperdon, Psathyrella y Stropharia como hongos sagrados o narcóticos, y se presentará también una breve historia del descubrimiento de hongos alucinógenos en México, como también algunos datos sobre su taxonomía, su distribución, y su uso tradicional en México.

     

Immunospecificity of albumin detected in 1.6 million-year-old fossils from Venta Micena in Orce,Granada, Spain

The Orce skull fragment from southern Spain, dated at 1.6 Myr, has been a subject of heated controversy since it was first discovered in 1982. If it is hominid, as its discoverers contend, it is by far the oldest fossil hominid yet found in western Europe and implies that human populations settled this region much earlier than was previously realized. Numerous stone artifacts found at the Orce sites provide evidence that hominids were indeed present there in the Lower Pleistocene. Some paleontologists maintain that the 8 cm diameter occipital fragment is from a horse, not a hominid. Two independent investigations of the residual proteins in the skull were undertaken, one at the University of Granada in Spain, the other at the University of California, San Francisco. Two immunological methods of comparable sensitivity were employed for detection and species attribution of protein extracted from fossil bone: the Granada team used an enzyme-linked-immunosorbent assay (ELISA), and the UCSF team used a radioimmunoassay (RIA). Both teams obtained reactions characteristic of human albumin in the Orce skull and horse albumin in some of the horse fossils. These results support the lithic evidence that hominids were living in Andalusia 1.6 million years ago. Am J Phys Anthropol 103:433–441, 1997. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Patagonian vegetation turnovers during the Paleogene-Early Neogene: Origin of arid-adapted floras

The structure of the living Patagonian flora, dominated by the steppe, is a direct consequence of past climatic and tectonic events. These arid-adapted communities were widespread during the Late Neogene, but their origin in Patagonia can be traced back to the Paleogene. Vegetational trends throughout Paleocene-Miocene time are based on available paleobotanical and palynological information. Four major supported stages in vegetation turnovers are recognized: (1) Paleocene and Early Eocene floras were rainforest-dominated, including many angiosperms with warm-temperate affinities (e.g., palms, Juglandaceae, Casuarinaceae). However, mainly in the Early Eocene, some geographic areas influenced by warm but drier conditions are suggested by the occurrence of certain taxa (e.g., Anacardiaceae). These areas containing arid-adapted floras would have arisen in Patagonian inland regions, in a generally wet continent. (2) The Middle Eocene-Early Oligocene interval was distinguished by the invasion ofNothofagus forests. Progressive replacements of megathermal communities by meso- and microthermal rainforest are documented.Nothofagus forest expansion suggests a marked cooling trend at this time, although some megathermal elements (AquifoliaceaeIlex, Tiliaceae-Bombacaceae, Sapindaceae) were still present at the beginning of this period. Arid-loving taxa have not been recorded in abundance. (3) Late Oligocene-Early Miocene floras were characterized by the occurrence of shrubby-herbaceous elements belonging to Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Ephedraceae, Convolvulaceae, Fabaceae, and Poaceae. They began to give a modern appearance to plant communities. Xerophytic formations would have occupied coastal salt marshes and pockets in inland areas. Megathermal angiosperms of the Rubiaceae, Combretaceae, Sapindaceae, Chloranthaceae, and Arecaceae occurred mainly during the Late Oligocene. Forests of Nothofagaceae, Podocarpaceae, and Araucariaceae are still documented in extra-Andean Patagonia; however, a contrast between coastal and inland environments may have developed, particularly in the Miocene. (4) Middle-Late Miocene records show an increasing diversity and abundance of xerophytic-adapted taxa, including Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, and ConvolvulaceaeCressa/Wilsonia. Expansion of these xerophytic taxa, coupled with extinctions of megathermal/nonseasonal elements, would have been associated with both tectonic and climatic forcing factors, led to the development of aridity and extreme seasonality. These arid-adapted Late Miocene floras are closely related to modern communities, with steppe widespread across extra-Andean Patagonia and forest restricted to the western humid upland regions.

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Resumen   Principales tendencias de la vegetación en Patagonia durante el Paleógeno-Neógeno temprano: origen de las floras adaptadas a condiciones de aridez. La estructura de la flora patagónica actual, dominada por la estepa, es consecuencia directa de los eventos tectónicos y climáticos a los que ha estado sometida. Estas comunidades, adaptadas a condiciones de extrema aridez, se expandieron durante el Neógeno tardío, aunque su origen en Pagatonia pudo haber ocurrido en el Paleógeno. En base a la información paleobotánica y palinolíogica disponible se sustentan las cuatro etapas principales de cambios en la vegetación a través del intervalo Paleoceno-Mioceno: 1-Paleoceno-Eoceno Temprano, con floras dominadas por selvas, incluyendo angiospermas con afinidades megatérmicas (ej. palmeras, Juglandaceae, Casuarinaceae). En el Eoceno Temprano, en algunas áreas geográficas habrían prevalecido condiciones cálidas pero áridas según surge de la presencia de taxones con estos requerimientos (ej. Anacardiaceae). Estos parches xerof íticos se habnían desarrollado en el interior de la Patagonia dentro de un entorno general húmedo. 2-Eoceno Medio-Oligoceno Temprano, caracterizado por la expansión de los bosques deNothofagus. Se documentó un progresivo reemplazo de comunidades megatérmicas por bosques meso y microtérmicos dominados porNothofagus y podocarpáceas, indicando un marcado enfriamiento. Al principio de este intervalo, sin embargo, todavía se reconocen algunos elementos megatérmicos (AquifoliaceaeIlex, Tiliaceae-Bombacaceae, Sapindaceae); los taxones xerofíticos, en cambio, son muy escasos. 3-Oligoceno Tardío-Mioceno Temprano, determinado por la presencia de elementos herbáceo-arbustivos de Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae, Ephedraceae, Convolvulaceae, Fabaceae, Poaceae, que empezaron a dar una apariencia moderna a las comunidades vegetales. Las formaciones xerofíticas habrían ocupado ambientes costeros como marismas o parches abiertos en áreas internas. Angiospermas megatérmicas como Rubiaceae, Combretaceae, Sapindaceae, Chloranthaceae y Arecacea están bien representadas, en particular en el Oligoceno Tardío. Los bosques de Nothofagaceae, Podocarpaceae y Araucariaceae todavía estarían presentes en la Patagonia extra-andina, pero ya existiría un marcado contraste entre los ambientes continentales y costeros. 4-Mioceno Medio-Tardío, definido por un marcado incremento en la diversidad y abundancia de taxones xerofítícos incluyendo Asteraceae, Chenopodiaceae y ConvolvulaceaeCressa/Wilsonia. La expansión de estas formas y la extinción de elementos megatérmicos, no estacionales, habrían estado asociadas a factures tectónicos y climáticos que condujeron al desarrollo de aridez y extrema estacionalidad. Las floras áridas del Mioceno Tardío se encuentran estrechamente relacionadas con las comunidades modernas, con la estepa expandida en la Patagonia extra-andina y los bosques restringidos a la región húmeda, occidental, de los Andes.

     

Réévaluation de la présence humaine au Pléistocène inférieur dans le Sud de l'Espagne

The Early Pleistocene locality at Venta Micena (Orce, Guadix-Baza basin, province of Granada, Spain) has provided four fossil remains - skull fragment VM-0, and long bone diaphyses VM-1960, VM-3691, and VM-12000 - which have been tentatively attributed to the hominids. Although several methodologies have been used to ascertain the human affinities of these specimens - including anatomical, morphometric and immunological analyses - the results obtained have not been conclusive, instigating a persistent debate. A taphonomic approach is used here for estimating the probability that a taxon the size of Homo sp. (~ 50 kg) could be represented in the fossil assemblage by four bone fragments and no tooth remain. A least-squares regression analysis between the percentage of teeth and the body mass estimated for each taxon of large mammals (N = 20) predicts a raw abundance of six teeth for Homo sp. in the assemblage. Given that up to the present moment no tooth remains attributable to the hominids has been unearthed during systematic excavations in the Venta Micena quarry, which has provided more than 15,000 fossils of large mammals, this argues strongly against the possibility that the three bone specimens could belong to Homo sp. The phalanx CV-0 from the Early Pleistocene site of Cueva Victoria (Cartagena, Spain) has also been attributed to the genus Homo. The taxonomic assignment of this specimen is biased, however, because it was not compared with Theropithecus oswaldi, the only primate species actually recorded from this karstic locality. A comparative anatomical and morphometric analysis of fossil and modern specimens of Theropithecus suggests that CV-0 can be attributed to T. oswaldi. As a result, Cueva Victoria does not contribute additional information concerning the first human settlements in Europe. By these reasons, apart from the paleoanthropological and archaeological findings from Atapuerca (TD lower levels and Sima del Elefante), the rich archaeological assemblages from Barranco León and Fuente Nueva-3 in Orce, dated 1.3-1.2 Myrs, which include fourteen hundred stone tools of Oldowan technology, constitute at present the only unequivocal evidence of human presence in Southeast Spain during Early Pleistocene times.     

Ungulate relative abundance in hunted and non-hunted sites in Calakmul Forest (Southern Mexico)

The relative abundance of an ungulate community in hunted and non-hunted areas was studied in Calakmul, a tropical forest in southern Mexico that includes a 723,815 ha Biosphere Reserve where no hunting is allowed and communal lands where hunting activity does take place. Tapir, white-lipped peccary (WLP), collared peccary, two species of brocket deer and white-tailed deer were the focal species. Relative abundance of ungulates was obtained by counting tracks along transects in three hunted sites and in the southern core area of the Calakmul Biosphere Reserve, a enforced part of the protected area of 350,000 ha where no hunting has been-permitted since 1989. A total of 1708 ungulates tracks were obtained along 206.1 km (n = 90 transects) divided among the four sites. Relative abundance of the species was estimated from the track encounter rate (TER) calculated as the number of tracks per species encountered per km of transect. No significant differences in brocket deer and collared peccary TER was found among hunted and non-hunted areas. TER for WLP was significant higher in the non-hunted area, while TER for white-tailed deer and tapir was significant higher in hunted sites. Hunting activity affected the ungulate species in Calakmul differently. Brocket deer, white-tailed deer and collared peccary are more resistant species toward the hunting pressure than the WLP, who needs an immediate protection plan throughout Calakmul. Hunting areas are important habitat refuges for tapir populations and they should be protected in these areas.

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Resumen La abundancia relativa de seis especies de ungulados fue obtenida a través de conteos de huellas a lo largo de transectos en tres sitios con cacería y en la parte sur de la Reserva de la Biosfera de Calakmul, una área de alrededor de 350,000 ha donde la cacería ha sido prohibida desde 1989. Tapir, pecarí de labios blancos, pecarí de collar, dos especies de venados temazates y el venado cola blanca fueron las especies estudiadas. Un total de 1708 huellas de ungulados fueron obtenidos a lo largo de 206.1 km (90 transectos) divididos en los cuatro sitios. La abundancia relativa de las especies fue estimada por medio de la tasa de encuentro de huellas (TEH) calculado como el número de huellas encontradas por km de transecto recorrido. La TEH de los venados temazates y el pecarí de collar fue similar entre las áreas con cacería y sin cacería. La TEH para el pecarí de labios blancos fue significativamente mayor en el área sin cacería, mientras que la TEH del venado cola blanca y el tapir fueron significativamente mayor en los sitios con cacería. La actividad de cacería afecta a las especies de ungulados diferente en la región de Calakmul. Los venados temazates, el venado cola blanca y el pecarí de collar están resistiendo mejor la presión de cacería que el pecarí de labios blancos quien necesita un plan inmediato de protección en toda el área. La evidencia sugiere que las áreas con cacería en este estudio son importantes para las poblaciones de tapir, y que se debe prestar atención a su protección en dichas áreas.

     

The first human dispersal to Europe: Remarks on the archaeological and palaeoanthropological record from Orce (Guadix-Baza basin, southeastern Spain)

The chronology of the first arrival ofHomo in Europe is a rather controversial issue, with most scholars claiming until very recently that there were no permanent human settlements before the middle Pleistocene. However, new findings at Atapuerca, Dmanisi and Orce, as well as the re-evaluation of the evidence from Java, Israel and China indicate a protracted chronology for the arrival of hominids in Eurasia, during late Pliocene/lower Pleistocene times. The systematic study of the macrovertebrate assemblages from circummediterranean sites such as Orce and Dmanisi has shown a faunal replacement at the Plio-Pleistocene boundary, marked by the arrival in Europe of African immigrants such as the hippopotamus, an equid similar to modern grevy’s zebra, a large cercopithecoid and several carnivores, including a giant hyaena, a sabre-tooth and a wild dog. An analysis of the relative frequency of bones and teeth for those species of large mammals preserved in Venta Micena indicates the improbability thatHomo sp. is represented in the fossil assemblage by several bones and no tooth remain. Finally, new data on the stratigraphy of Barranco León are offered, with remarks on the discovery in this locality of lithic artefacts and molar tooth fragment BL5-0.     

Alkaloid diversity in eleven species of Ormosia and in Clathrotropis macrocarpa (Leguminosae-Papilionoideae)

Quinolizidine alkaloids were surveyed using gas chromatography (GC) and combined mass spectroscopy (MS) in bark or leaves of eleven species ofOrmosia Jackson as well as inClathrotropis macrocarpa Ducke from tropical forests in Latin America. A list of detected alkaloids, with their MS fragmentation patterns and GC retention indices, is given, as are the distribution of alkaloids among the samples and their detected concentrations. Alkaloid diversity inOrmosia was high, and the taxonomic distribution of specific alkaloids was not congruent with morphological taxonomic criteria: Of 143 alkaloids apparent in 14 samples, 65 were observed in only one sample, and no single alkaloid was common to all samples. Within a species, alkaloid concentrations were inconsistent and therefore cannot be used as a taxonomic character. This was shown for leaf alkaloid concentrations of two neighboring conspecific trees in the same habitat. Hemos analizado mediante cromatografia de gases (CG) y espectrometría de masas (EM) la composición en alcaloides quinolizidínicos de muestras de corteza y hojas de once especies deOrmosia Jackson y deClathrotropis macrocarpa Ducke, procedentes de las selvas de Latinoamérica. Presentamos una lista completa de los alcaloides detectados incluyendo sus fragmentos en EM y su índice de retención en CG. También presentamos la distribución de los alcaloides en las muestras y su concentración. La variedad de alcaloides era alta y su distribución por especies no se ajustó con criterios taxonómicos morfológicos: De los 143 alcaloides detectados en 14 muestras, 65 alcaloides estaban presentes en una sola muestra y ningún en todas las muestras. La concentración de los alcaloides en una especie no fue consistente y por lo tanto no puede utilizarse como carácter taxonómico. Esta conclusión proviene del análisis de la concentración de alcaloides en hojas de dos árboles de la misma especie en el mismo hábitat.     

Agricultural practices for enhanced human health

Phytochemicals in vegetables are known to be responsible for protective effects against many human diseases, including cardiovascular diseases and different types of cancer. Environmental conditions and physiological factors may modify the amounts of these compounds present in vegetables and fruits, but also crop management strategies could increase the production of phytochemicals. Therefore, the effects of mineral nutrition, soil composition and water content on the production of phytochemicals have been considered in the development of different fertilisation strategies, efficient water management and techniques such as grafting. Finally, the contents of health-promoting compounds in vegetables and fruits depend both quantitatively and qualitatively on their genetic bases. Thus, conventional breeding and genetic modification have been developed as new methodologies to enhance the nutritional properties of plants. M. C. Martínez-Ballesta, L. López-Pérez, M. Hernández, C. López-Berenguer, N. Fernández-García contributed equally.     

Zur Kenntnis einiger Finken des peruanischen Küstengebietes (mit Beschreibungen neuer Subspezies)∗

Contribución al conocimiento de algunos fringílidos de la región costanera del Perú (con descripciones originales de nuevas subespecies) por Maria Koepcke.

Estudiando las comunidades vitales naturales de las lomas de la costa peruana hemos encontrado en algunas especies de aves nuevas razas geográficas. Además fué posible hallar nuevos datos respecto a la posición sistemática y distribución de otras. En este trabajo trato solamente de los fringílidos. Se describe tres subespecies nuevas.

Sporophila obscura pacifica nov. subspec, más grande y de coloración más grisácea que las otras razas de esta especie. Vive en la costa del Centro y Sur del Perú desde las lomas de Lachay (90 kms. al norte de Lima) hasta Atiquipa (cerca de Chala).

Zonotrichia capensis illescasensis nov. subspec. es un endemismo de las lomas del Cerro Illescas (Norte del Perú, a los 6^o Lat. S.) que tienen una situación geográfica muy aislada. Se distingue de las otras razas de Zonotrichia capensis existentes en la costa y sierra del Norte del Perú y Sur de Ecuador (peruviensis, huancabambae, y costaricensis) sobre todo por su coloración más grisácea, las manchas negras y rojizas en el cuello y pecho más pálidas y menos desarrolladas, los bordes de las plumas del dorso y de las alas color ocre‐arena en vez de rojizo. De la raza peruviensis tan común en las lomas de la costa centro y sur del Perú, se distingue además por su tamaño menor y su canto diferente.

Phrygilus alaudinus humboldti nov. subspec. es una raza costeña del Norte del Perú y Sur de Ecuador que se caracteriza por su tamaño pequeño y la coloración algo más pálida del macho. Es muy común en las lomas del Cerro Illescas. En las otras lomas a lo largo de la costa central y sur del Perú se observa la raza más grande bipartitus que además es típica en las vertientes andinas desde el Sur de Ecuador hasta el Sur del Perú.

La población de Sicalis luteola existente en el lado occidental de los Andes peruanos y en los valles interandinos norperuanos se identifica como perteneciente a la raza geográfica bogotensis, mientras que la Sicalis raimondii se reconoce de nuevo como otra especie. Ambas fueron confundidos y reunidos bajo un mismo nombre de especie por varios autores, pero pertenecen a dos especies distintas que se presentan en las mismas áreas, distinguiéndose considerablemente en su canto y lugares de anidación. También en la coloración presentan sus características propias, como el anillo amarillo alrededor del ojo y la coloración general más pardo‐verduzca en Sicalis luteola y, por otro lado, la coloración más gris y reducción de las manchas oscuras en el dorso en Sicalis raimondii.     

Constraints and trade-offs in Mediterranean plant communities: The case of holm oak-Aleppo pine forests

In this paper we review those aspects that are relevant to the development of a mechanistic ecological theory to account for the structure and dynamics of Mediterranean forests, focusing our attention on mixed forests of holm oak (Quercus ilex L.), a shade-tolerant, slowgrowing species that resprouts vigorously after disturbance, and Aleppo pine (Pinus halepensis M.), a fast-growing, nonresprouting, shade-intolerant species. The main objectives of this report are: to introduce some of the primary features of these forests, showing their structural complexity and historical peculiarities; to show that much of this complexity can be conceptually reduced to two main factors of variation, soil-moisture gradients and a complex interaction of historical management and disturbance regimes; and to contrast the unique features of Mediterranean systems with other communities that have inspired generalization in ecology. Plants in Mediterranean-climate regions must face several environmental constraints during their life cycle: water limitation, competition for light, and a complex set of disturbance regimes, mainly fire, herbivory, and human exploitation. The response of co-occurring species to a given set of environmental constraints depends on a combination of physiological and morphological traits. In holm oak-Aleppo pine forests, the lower limit of distribution along a soil-moisture gradient appears to be controlled by dry-season water stress on seedling performance, and the upper limit seems to be controlled by shade tolerance relative to competitors. The processes that generate and maintain these patterns are related to the responses of the two species to the water and light environments that result from interacting gradients of disturbance and resource availability. The dynamics of mixed holm oak-Aleppo pine forests may be represented along two major environmental axes: water availability and light intensity; namely, time since last disturbance. At the regional scale, the presence of holm oak and Aleppo pine is expected to be driven mainly by the precipitation regime, with the proportion of Aleppo pine increasing toward the driest border and with holm oak being the dominant species in areas with higher precipitation. Changes of dominance of holm oak and Aleppo pine also respond to water availability at the local scale. In this case, variations between species depend on different factors in a complex way, because reduced soil-moisture levels may result either from low precipitation or from topography and edaphic features. The dynamics of holm oak-Aleppo pine forests are also determined by temporal changes in canopy closure; that is, forest recovery after disturbance. In this case, the proportion of Aleppo pine would increase in recently disturbed stands (i.e., with high light intensity reaching the forest floor), whereas regeneration of holm oak would be dominant under partially closed canopies. Theories of forest dynamics developed in humid regions may apply only poorly to Mediterranean plant communities, where vegetation change is qualitatively or quantitatively different. Thus, succession in temperate forests appears to be driven by differences in light availability and shade tolerance; but in Mediterranean plant communities, water limitation is of greater importance for the distribution of forest species. In Mediterranean landscapes the interaction of life-history strategies with changing environments is difficult to infer from observational and experimental studies. A mechanistic approach, in which competition or plant performance is measured as a function of resource availability, seems more feasible. The idea should be to develop multispecies models calibrated specifically for Mediterranean forests in a combined program of modeling, field research, and experimentation.

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Resumen  En este trabajo se revisan los aspectos más relevantes en el desarrollo de una teoría ecológica mecanicista sobre la estructura y dinámica de los bosques mediterráneos, en concreto sobre los bosques mixtos de encina (Quercus ilex L.), una especie tolerante a la sombra, de crecimiento lento, y que rebrota vigorosamente después de una perturbación, y pino carrasco (Pinus halepensis M.), una especie de crecimiento rápido, no rebrotadora, e intolerante a la sombra. Los principales objetivos de este estudio son: introducir algunas de las principales características de estos bosques, mostrando su complejidad estructural y sus peculiaridades históricas; mostrar que gran parte de esta complejidad puede reducirse conceptualmente a dos principales factores de variación, la disponibilidad de agua en el suelo y una compleja interaction de regímenes de gestión y perturbación; y contrastar las características únicas de los sistemas mediterráneos con las de otros sistemas en los que se han basados gran parte de las generalizaciones que se han hecho en ecologia. En las regiones de clima mediterráneo, las plantas deben enfrentarse a diferentes restricciones: limitación hídrica, competencia por la luz, y un conjunto complejo de regímenes de perturbación, principalmente fuego, herbivoría, y explotación humana. La respuesta de las especies a un conjunto de limitaciones ambientales depende de la combinación de caracteres fisiológicos y morfológicos. En los bosques de pino carrasco y encina, el límite inferior de distribución de las especies viene controlado por el estrés hídrico de la estación, mientras que el límite superior viene controlado por la tolerancia a la sombra. Los procesos que generan y mantienen estos patrones están relacionados con las respuestas de ambas especies a lo largo de su ciclo de vida a los ambientes de luz y agua que se generan como resultado de la interacción de los gradientes de perturbación y disponibilidad de recursos. La dinámica de los bosques mixtos de pino carrasco y encina se puede representar a lo largo de dos principales ejes ambientales: disponibilidad de agua e intensidad de luz; o, lo que es lo mismo, tiempo desde la última perturbación. A una escala regional, la presencia de pino carrasco y encina viene determinada por el régimen de precipitación: el pino carrasco aumenta hacia el extremo más seco, mientras que la encina se hace dominante en áreas con mayor precipitación. A escala local, los cambios en la dominancia de ambas especies también responden a la disponibilidad de agua. En este caso las variaciones entre especies dependen de diferentes factores, ya que los niveles bajos de humedad del suelo pueden ser debidos a la baja precipitación, pero también a la topografía o a las características edáficas. La dinámica de los bosques de pino y encina también depende de los cambios temporales en el cierre de la cubierta, es decir, de la recuperación del bosque después de la perturbación. En este caso, la proporción de pino carrasco se incrementa en los rodales recién perturbados (en los cuales llega mucha luz al suelo del bosque), mientras que la regeneración de encina domina bajo cubiertas parcialmente cerradas. Las teorías de dinámica forestal desarrolladas en las regiones húmedas se aplican con dificultad en las comunidades de plantas mediterráneas, donde los cambios de la vegetación suelen ser cualitativamente y cuantitativamente distintos. Así, en los bosques templados la sucesión viene determinada por diferencias en la disponibilidad de luz y la tolerancia a la sombra de las diferentes especies, mientras que en las comunidades mediterráneas la limitación hídrica es más importante a la hora de explicar la distribución de las especies forestales. En los ecosistemas mediterráneos, la interacción de las estrategias del ciclo vital con los cambios en el ambiente dificilmente pueden deducirse a partir de estudios observacionales y experimentales. Se requiere una aproximación mecanicista, en la cual la competencia o el éxito de las plantas se pueda medir en función de la disponibilidad de recursos. La idea sería desarrollar modelos multiespecíficos calibrados específicamente para los bosques mediterráneos, en los que se combinara la modelización con los estudios de campo y la experimentación.

     

Parasitoids of whiteflies (Hymenoptera: Aphelinidae,Eulophidae, Platygastridae; Hemiptera: Aleyrodidae) from the Macaronesian archipelagos of the Canary Islands,Madeira and the Azores

Data on the whitefly parasitoid species known from the Macaronesian archipelagos of the Canary Islands, Madeira and the Azores are presented, based largely on recently collected material. A total of 26 species are treated, including six new species, six new records for the Canary Islands, two new records for Madeira, and two new records for the Azores. All species are fully described and illustrated. New species described are: Encarsia atlantica Polaszek & Hernández; Encarsia levadicola Polaszek & Hernández; Encarsia melanostoma Polaszek & Hernández; Encarsia noahi Polaszek & Hernández; Euderomphale gomer LaSalle & Hernández; Euderomphale insularis LaSalle & Hernández. A fully illustrated identification key based on females is provided for recognition of whitefly parasitoids in these archipelagos. Data on the known distribution and hosts are provided, as well as references to biology and use in biological control.