Molecular Epidemiology of Imported Cases of Leishmaniasis in Australia from 2008 to 2014

Leishmaniasis is a vector borne disease caused by protozoa of the genus Leishmania. Human leishmaniasis is not endemic in Australia though imported cases are regularly encountered. This study aimed to provide an update on the molecular epidemiology of imported leishmaniasis in Australia. Of a total of 206 biopsies and bone marrow specimens submitted to St Vincent’s Hospital Sydney for leishmaniasis diagnosis by PCR, 55 were found to be positive for Leishmania DNA. All PCR products were subjected to restriction fragment length polymorphism analysis for identification of the causative species. Five Leishmania species/species complexes were identified with Leishmania tropica being the most common (30/55). Travel or prior residence in a Leishmania endemic region was the most common route of acquisition with ~47% of patients having lived in or travelled to Afghanistan. Cutaneous leishmaniasis was the most common manifestation (94%) with only 3 cases of visceral leishmaniasis and no cases of mucocutaneous leishmaniasis encountered. This report indicates that imported leishmaniasis is becoming increasingly common in Australia due to an increase in global travel and immigration. As such, Australian clinicians must be made aware of this trend and consider leishmaniasis in patients with suspicious symptoms and a history of travel in endemic areas. This study also discusses the recent identification of a unique Leishmania species found in native kangaroos and a potential vector host which could create the opportunity for the establishment of a local transmission cycle within humans.     

Norovirus Epidemiology in Africa: A Review

Norovirus (NoV) is recognised as a leading cause of gastroenteritis worldwide across all age groups. The prevalence and diversity of NoVs in many African countries is still unknown, although early sero-prevalence studies indicated widespread early infection. Reports on NoVs in Africa vary widely in terms of study duration, population groups and size, inclusion of asymptomatic controls, as well as genotyping information. This review provides an estimate of NoV prevalence and distribution of genotypes of NoVs in Africa. Inclusion criteria for the review were study duration of at least 6 months, population size of >50 and diagnosis by RT-PCR. As regions used for genotyping varied, or genotyping was not always performed, this was not considered as an inclusion criteria. A literature search containing the terms norovirus+Africa yielded 74 publications. Of these 19 studies from 14 out of the 54 countries in Africa met the inclusion criteria. Data from studies not meeting the inclusion criteria, based on sample size or short duration, were included as discussion points. The majority of studies published focused on children, under five years of age, hospitalised with acute gastroenteritis. The mean overall prevalence was 13.5% (range 0.8–25.5%) in children with gastroenteritis and 9.7% (range 7–31%) in asymptomatic controls, where tested. NoV GII.4 was the predominant genotype identified in most of the studies that presented genotyping data. Other prevalent genotypes detected included GII.3 and GII.6. In conclusion, NoV is a common pathogen in children with diarrhoea in Africa, with considerable carriage in asymptomatic children. There is however, a paucity of data on NoV infection in adults.     

Epidemiological and Molecular Characterization of Dengue Virus Circulating in Bhutan, 2013-2014

Dengue is one of the most significant public health problems in tropical and subtropical countries, and is increasingly being detected in traditionally non-endemic areas. In Bhutan, dengue virus (DENV) has only recently been detected and limited information is available. In this study, we analyzed the epidemiological and molecular characteristics of DENV in two southern districts in Bhutan from 2013–2014. During this period, 379 patients were clinically diagnosed with suspected dengue, of whom 119 (31.4%) were positive for DENV infection by NS1 ELISA and/or nested RT-PCR. DENV serotypes 1, 2 and 3 were detected with DENV-1 being predominant. Phylogenetic analysis of DENV-1 using envelope gene demonstrated genotype V, closely related to strains from northern India.     

Family allowances in great Britain,Canada, Australia and New Zealand

Abstract

Methods derived from stable population theory are employed to estimate the effect emigration is exerting upon the capacity of a Southwest Indian reservation population to develop economically. This capacity is measured by age‐structure‐dependent demographic indices which have been shown to affect the availability of development funds. Emigration is found to be absorbing all of the current positive growth of the population, decreasing and aging the available labor force and increasing the dependency burden upon nondependent members of the population. It is concluded that emigration affects the population structure in a way that could hinder economic development of the reservation population.     

Increasing Disadvantages in Cancer Survival in New Zealand Compared to Australia,between 2000-05 and 2006-10

New Zealand has lower cancer survival compared to its neighbour Australia. If this were due to long established differences between the two patient populations, it might be expected to be either constant in time, or decreasing, as improving health services deals with inequities. In this study we compared trends in relative cancer survival ratios in New Zealand and Australia between 2000–05 and 2006–10, using data from the New Zealand Cancer Registry and the Australian Institute for Health and Welfare. Over this period, Australia showed significant improvements (6.0% in men, 3.0% in women) in overall 5-year cancer survival, with substantial increases in survival from major cancer sites such as lung, bowel, prostate, and breast cancers. New Zealand had only a 1.8% increase in cancer survival in men and 1.3% in women, with non-significant changes in survival from lung and bowel cancers, although there were increases in survival from prostate and breast cancers. For all cancers combined, and for lung and bowel cancer, the improvements in survival and the greater improvements in Australia were mainly in 1-year survival, suggesting factors related to diagnosis and presentation. For breast cancer, the improvements were similar in each country and seen in survival after the first year. The findings underscore the need to accelerate the efforts to improve early diagnosis and optimum treatment for New Zealand cancer patients to catch up with the progress in Australia.     

用质量控制狭缝式杂交法（Coslot）检测妇女宫颈上皮中人乳头瘤病毒（HPV）DNA

本文报道一种能对ＨＰＶ进行较为准确分型的刚Ａ杂交程序和方法。它具有如下特点：１．由于简化了实验程序,标本消耗减少。因此该方法尤其适用于小组织活检标本（１－２ｍｇ）中ＤＮＡ同源序列检测;２．敏感性高。由于标本消耗减少,使ＨＰＶ检出率大为提高,与斑点杂交技术相比,敏感性提高１．６倍;３．型别特异性强。由于改变了实验条件及在实验过程中实行严格的质量控制,明显减少了不同ＨＰＶ型别的交叉反应,甚至在部分出现交叉反应的标本中,仍可通过强度对比来最后判定ＨＰＶ感染型别。应用该技术对１４３份宫颈炎标本、１７份宫颈不典型增生标本及２５份宫颈癌标本进行了ＨＰＶ１６型检测,阳性率分别为５０．０５％（７３／１４３）、５７％（２７／４７）及７６％（１９／２５）,并与Ｄｏｔｂｌｏｔ方法进行了比较。该方法在ＨＰＶ感染与宫颈癌关系的分子流行病学研究中具有重要意义和广阔的应用前景。     

Molecular provenance analysis for shy and white-capped albatrosses killed by fisheries interactions in Australia, New Zealand, and South Africa

Shy and white-capped albatrosses, Thalassarche cauta and T. steadi, respectively, are phenotypically similar and are known to suffer fisheries-related bycatch mortality across their foraging range. Assessments of the extent or scale of impact of bycatch mortality on these species have previously been precluded by difficulties identifying bycatch carcasses to species level. In this study, a fast and simple molecular test based on a single nucleotide polymorphism in mtDNA of shy and white-capped albatrosses was used to determine the species composition of fisheries bycatch carcasses recovered from Australian, New Zealand, and South African waters. The only area where bycatch mortality of both species co-occurred was in Tasmanian waters; in all other zones the bycatch was exclusively comprised of white-capped albatrosses. Genotypic provenance assignment tests of shy albatrosses, a species with significant genetic structure between island colonies, correctly assigned 72% to their island of origin. These data are the first to provide insight into the relative vulnerability of shy and white-capped albatrosses to bycatch mortality across their foraging range, and to establish the vast differences in the at-sea distributions of these two species.     

Molecular Epidemiology of Tuberculosis in Finland, 2008-2011

In industrialized countries the majority of tuberculosis (TB) cases are linked to immigration. In Finland, most cases are still Finnish born but the number of foreign born cases is steadily increasing. In this 4-year population based study, the TB situation in Finland was characterized by a genotypic analysis of Mycobacterium tuberculosis isolates. A total of 1048 M. tuberculosis isolates (representing 99.4% of all culture positive cases) were analyzed by spoligotyping and MIRU. Spoligotype lineages belonging to the Euro-American family were predominant among the Finnish isolates, particularly T (n=346, 33.0%) and Haarlem (n=237, 22.6%) strains. The lineage signature was unknown for 130 (12.4%) isolates. Out of the 17 multi-drug resistant TB strains, 10 (58.8%) belonged to the Beijing lineage. In total, 23 new SIT designations were given and 51 orphan strains were found, of which 58 patterns were unique to Finland. Phylogeographical TB mapping as compared to neighboring countries showed that the population structure in Finland most closely resembled that observed in Sweden. By combining spoligotyping and MIRU results, 98 clusters comprising 355 isolates (33.9%) were found. Only 10 clusters contained both Finnish and foreign born cases. In conclusion, a large proportion of the M. tuberculosis isolates were from Finnish born elderly patients. Moreover, many previously unidentified spoligotype profiles and isolates belonging to unknown lineages were encountered.     

Epidemiology of Down syndrome in South Australia, 1960-89.

During 1960-89 687 Down syndrome live births and 46 Down syndrome pregnancy terminations were identified in South Australia. Ascertainment was estimated to be virtually complete. The sex distribution of Down syndrome live births was found to be statistically different from the non-Down syndrome live-birth sex distribution (P less than .01). Smoothed maternal age-specific incidence was derived using both maternal age calculated to the nearest month and a discontinuous-slope regression model. The incidence of Down syndrome at birth for the study period was estimated to be 1.186 Down syndrome births/1,000 live births. Annual population incidence was shown to be correlated with trends in the maternal age distribution of confinements. If current trends in the maternal age distribution of confinements continue, the population incidence of Down syndrome in South Australia is predicted to exceed 1.5 Down syndrome births/1,000 live births during the 1990-94 quinquennium.     

Trends in sales of drugs for asthma in New Zealand,Australia, and the United Kingdom, 1975-81.

As part of an investigation into the recent epidemic of deaths from asthma in New Zealand, trends in the sales of drugs for asthma in New Zealand, Australia, and the United Kingdom during 1975-81 were examined. Data on sales of drugs were obtained from an international pharmaceutical market research organisation. A striking increase in sales of sympathomimetic aerosols, steroid aerosols, and theophylline per caput occurred in all three countries, with the greatest increase occurring in New Zealand. Sales of sodium cromoglycate also increased in New Zealand and the UK but fell in Australia. By 1981 New Zealand had the highest sales of all these drugs per caput. Explanations for the rising mortality from asthma in New Zealand despite large increases in drug sales need to be explored. Although the temporal association between mortality and sales of drugs suggests that direct drug toxicity is unlikely, there may be more subtle adverse effects of drug use.     

Epidemiology of Acute Gastroenteritis Outbreaks Caused by Human Calicivirus (Norovirus and Sapovirus) in Catalonia: A Two Year Prospective Study, 2010-2011

BackgroundThe epidemiology of cases of acute gastroenteritis (AGE) of viral etiology is a relevant public health issue. Due to underreporting, the study of outbreaks is an accepted approach to investigate their epidemiology. The objective of this study was to investigate the epidemiological characteristics of AGE outbreaks due to norovirus (NoV) and sapovirus (SV) in Catalonia.ResultsA total of 101 outbreaks were registered affecting a total of 2756 persons and 12 hospitalizations (hospitalization rate: 0.8x1,000,000 persons-year); 49.5% of outbreaks were foodborne, 45.5% person to person and 5% waterborne. The distribution of outbreaks according to the setting showed a predominance of catering services (39.6%), nursing homes and long term care facilities (26.8%) and schools (11.9%). The median number of cases per outbreak was 17 (range 2–191). The total Incidence rate (IR) was 18.3 per 100,000 persons-years (95%CI: 17.6–19.0). The highest IR was in persons aged ≥65 years (43.6x100,000 (95% CI: 41.0–46.2)) (p<0.001). A total of 1065 samples were analyzed with a positivity rate of 60.8%. 98% of positive samples were NoV (GII 56.3%; GI 4.2%; GII+GI 4.2%; non- typable 33.0%). SV was identified in two person-to-person transmission outbreaks in children.ConclusionsThese results confirm the relevance of viral AGE outbreaks, both foodborne and person-to-person, especially in institutionalized persons. SV should be taken into account when investigating viral AGE outbreaks.     

Reproduction, spawning, and development of 5 ophiuroids from Australia and New Zealand

Abstract. Reproduction and development in 5 brittle stars: Ophiactis resiliens, Ophionereis fasciata, Ophiothrix caespitosa, Ophiothrix spongicola , and Ophionereis schayeri were investigated in a series of laboratory spawning and fertilization trials. Ophiactis resiliens spawned in 90% of trials, both spontaneously (in response to disturbance) and after temperature and light shock. Ophiothrix caespitosa and Ophiothrix spongicola spawned in 100% of trials, largely due to spontaneous gamete release. In contrast, Ophionereis fasciata and Ophionereis schayeri spawned in only 32% and 50% of trials respectively, and only in response to temperature and light shock. All 5 species required an aggregation of males and females for spawning and fertilization. The breeding periods of each species, estimated from the spawning trials, are reported. Eggs of Ophiactis resiliens, Ophionereis fasciata, Ophiothrix caespitosa , and Ophiothrix spongicola were 83 μm, 99 μm, 105 μm, and 128 μm in diameter, respectively, and all underwent planktotrophic development through an ophiopluteus. Eggs of Ophionereis schayeri were 241 μm in diameter and underwent lecithotrophic development through an armless bilateral larva that secondarily transformed into a radial vitellaria. The two Ophionereis species, with differing modes of development, provide an ideal opportunity to examine life-history evolution within a clade; however, these species were the most difficult to spawn. Ophiactis resiliens and the two Ophiothrix species spawned readily when they were visually mature at collection, and are thus useful species for developmental studies.     

Characteristics of HIV-1 Molecular Epidemiology in Suzhou,China, from 2009 to 2014

正Dear Editor,Human immunodeficiency virus(HIV)and acquired immunodeficiency syndrome(AIDS)remain major public health problems in China,where approximately 780,000people currently live with HIV,according to the 2012 China AIDS Response Progress Report.Suzhou was an early epidemic region in Jiangsu province and the current situation of     

Genetic Analysis of Norovirus GII.4 Variant Strains Detected in Outbreaks of Gastroenteritis in Yokohama,Japan, from the 2006-2007 to the 2013-2014 Seasons

Noroviruses (NoVs) are the leading cause of acute gastroenteritis, both in sporadic cases and outbreaks. Since the 1990s, the emergence of several GII.4 variants has been reported worldwide. To investigate the epidemic status of NoV, 6,724 stool samples collected from outbreaks in Yokohama, Japan, from the 2006–2007 to 2013–2014 seasons were assessed for NoVs. We genotyped one specimen from each GII outbreak and conducted a sequence analysis of the VP1 gene for several GII.4 strains. Of the 947 NoV outbreaks during our study, GII was detected in 835, and GII.4 was the predominant genotype of GII. Five different GII.4 variants, Yerseke 2006a, Den Haag 2006b (2006b), Apeldoorn 2007, New Orleans 2009, and Sydney 2012, were detected. During this study period, the most prevalent variant of GII.4 was 2006b, and in each individual season, either 2006b or Sydney 2012 was the predominant variant. Out of the 16 detected 2006b strains, 12 had some amino acid substitutions in their blockade epitope, and these substitutions were concentrated in three residues. Two of the 2006b strains detected in the 2012–2013 season had a S368E substitution, which is consistent with the amino acid residues at same site of NSW0514 (Sydney 2012 prototype). Among the 16 detected strains of Sydney 2012, a phylogenetic analysis showed that all five strains detected in Yokohama during the 2011–2012 season clustered away from the other Sydney 2012 strains that were detected in the 2012–2013 and 2013–2014 seasons. These five strains and other Sydney 2012 strains in Yokohama had a few amino acid differences in the blockade epitopes compared with NSW0514. The amino acid substitutions observed in this study provide informative data about the evolution of a novel GII.4 variant.     

New Species of Lagenophrys (Ciliophora,Peritrichia) from New Zealand and Australia1

Lagenophrys novazealandae n. sp. occurs on the gills of Paranephrops zealandicus, a parastacid crayfish from New Zealand. The new species has the hemispheroidal lorica most common among members of its genus and is distinguished by its possession of large tubercles on the thickened edge of the anterior lip of the lorica aperture, a deep cleft in the left side of the lip's edge, and a ovoid to reniform macronucleus located in the right-hand part of the body. It is probable that an as yet unnamed species of Lagenophrys known to occur on another species of Paranephrops in New Zealand is distinct from L. novazealandae but phylogenetically related to it. Lagenophrys petila n. sp. occurs on setae of Parastacoides tasmanicus, a parastacid from Tasmania. The new species has an ovoid lorica tapering to a slender pseudostalk at the posterior end, a type of lorica possessed by only two other members of its genus that also attach to their host's setae. It is distinguished from the other ovoid species by the proportions of the lorica, the extreme shortness of the lips of the lorica aperture, and an ovoid macronucleus located in the right, anterior part of the body. Clefts in the lips of L. novazealandae and other members of Lagenophrys may function as points of flexure to allow the lips to bend in ways that accommodate interspecific differences in the size of the epistomial disk and its operation during suspension feeding.     

Epidemiology of bovine ephemeral fever in Australia 1981-1985

Bovine ephemeral fever is an important viral disease of cattle in Australia. The disease occurred each year, principally in summer and autumn, between 1981 and 1985. Queensland and the northern half of New South Wales were areas of greatest activity with only sporadic cases being reported from the Northern Territory and the northern third of Western Australia. Since 1981, the disease has been endemic in an extensive area of eastern Australia and has tended to occur in widely scattered outbreaks rather than the north-south advancing wave form of the epidemics of 1936-37, 1967-68, 1970-71 and 1972-74. The southernmost outbreaks between 1981 and 1985 were well within the limits of these earlier epidemics. The pattern of disease appears to have become seasonally endemic rather than periodically endemic in the northern two-thirds of eastern Australia. Ephemeral fever was not recorded in Victoria, Tasmania, South Australia or the southern part of Western Australia between 1981 and 1985. The disease was most frequently reported in cattle under 3 years of age, but also occurred in older cattle.