Phenological growth stages of jackfruit (Artocarpus heterophyllus) according to the extended BBCH scale

Jackfruit, the largest known edible fruit bearing tree, is one of the important fruit crops of India. It exhibits wide range of diversity with respect to fruit character and bulb quality. It is an important component of homestead garden because of its multifarious uses (dessert, vegetable and pickle) and high nutritive value. In spite of high food value and market potential, jackfruit is one of the poorly researched crops and there is a dearth of information about its phenology. The present study defines phenological stages of jackfruit according to the extended BBCH (Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie) scale using three‐digit numerical system. Eight principal growth stages, namely bud development (stage 0), shoot development (stage 1), leaf development (stage 3), specialised reproductive shoot development (stage 4), reproductive development (stage 5), flowering (stage 6), fruit development (stage 7) and fruit maturation (stage 8) have been described. A total of 42 secondary growth stages have been described and defined. In this study, bearing and non‐bearing footstalks as well as male and female phases have been defined separately. The study will act as an effective tool for providing a consensual unified approach for standardisation of phenophases, as well as for efficient orchard management for ensuring higher yield and fruit quality. The scale may also be effectively used for characterisation and adaptation of germplasm and assessment of climatic impact on crop phenology.     

Phenological growth stages of olive trees (Olea europaea)

This paper describes the phenological growth stages of olive trees using the BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt, Chemische Industrie) scale. Eight principal growth stages for bud, leaf and shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, fruit maturity and senescence and 32 secondary growth stages are described. Advantages of the BBCH scale over other methods are discussed.     

Phenological growth stages of African oil palm (Elaeis guineensis)

The aim of this paper was to study the phenology of commercially cultivated representative genotypes of the Elaeis guineensis Jacq. species in two Colombian growing areas. The frequency of observations was daily, weekly or monthly depending on the stage of development under evaluation, over an 18‐month time period. Observations were made on prenursery and nursery plants and on three‐ to five‐year‐old palms starting from the zero leaf (spear leaf), through development of inflorescence, and ending with maturity and harvesting of fruit bunches. Stem observations were made on different age palms of the same cultivars. The duration of each phenological stage was measured in terms of days. The phenological growth stages were coded according to the BBCH scale (Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie), consisting of three digits, because of the inclusion of intermediate stages between the principal and secondary stages in order to provide more accurate details on each development stage.     

Phenological growth stages of Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) according to the BBCH scale

Indian jujube (Ziziphus mauritiana Lamk.) has been recognised as an underutilised plant worthy of further research and development by the Indian National Genetic Resources Programme and the International Centre for Underutilised Crops, UK. It is an important fruit crop of the hot arid regions in India as it forms an integral part of the life of the locals as a source of nutrition, fodder (leaves), fuel (pruned wood) and it has several ethnobotanical uses. In this study, 8 of the 10 principal growth stages based on the existing Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie (BBCH) scale were used to describe Indian jujube. These growth stages were vegetative bud development (Stage 0), leaf development (Stage 1), shoot development (Stage 3), inflorescence development (Stage 5), flower development (Stage 6), fruit development (Stage 7), fruit maturity (Stage 8) and senescence or beginning of dormancy (Stage 9). The phenological BBCH scale for Indian jujube can be used to guide the growers as to when to carry out orchard management practices such as canopy training and pruning, nutrient and water application, pest and disease control and post‐harvest processing.     

Phenological growth stages of shea tree (Vitellaria paradoxa subsp. paradoxa) according to the BBCH scale

The shea tree is among the socio-economically and environmentally most important plants in the Sudano-Sahelian region of Africa. Shea butter is internationally valued for use in pharmaceutical, cosmetic and confectionary industries. Scaling and describing phenological growth stages is of great importance in crops management. However, such phenological scale is still lacking for shea tree. To fill this gap, we documented the different growth stages of shea tree by referencing to the Biologische Bundesantalt, Bundessortenamt und Chemische Industrie (BBCH) scale. Eight of the ten principal growth stages (0–9) and 43 secondary growth stages (0–9) were described in shea tree. Among the eight principal stages, four were related to reproductive phenophases: inflorescence emergence stage (5), flowering stage (6), fruit development stage (7), and fruit maturity stage (8). The remaining four principal stages concerned vegetative phenophases and contained: bud development stage (0), leaf development stage (1), shoot development stage (3), and senescence stage (9). Observations of shea tree phenophases depicted asynchronous growth patterns with overlapping secondary growth stages of different principal stages within an individual tree canopy at the same time. The proposed phenological growth scale specific to shea tree but compatible with other crops is a valuable contribution for the implementation of crops management protocols and the standardisation of research between different laboratories.     

Phenological growth stages of nashi tree (Pyrus pyrifolia): codification and description according to the BBCH scale

The phenological growth stages of nashi tree were firstly described here using the BBCH scale. Based on this general scale, nashi phenology showed 8 of the 10 principal stages (0–9): bud, leaf and shoot development, inflorescence emergence, flowering, fruit development, fruit maturity and senescence. A schematic representation of the chronological progression of principal growth stages of nashi is also shown. The codification of the different growth stages is important for correct timing of general orchard management, particularly for disease and pest management. Besides, it will help farmers to efficiently schedule and manage nashi cultivation, as well as to improve knowledge dissemination among scientists around the World.     

Phenological stages of willow (Salix)

The practice of uniform recording of biological plant growth stages or events has long been practiced in agricultural production. In this study the BBCH (Biologishe Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt and CHemical Industry) code has been applied to four precocious species of willows to define growth stages important to this group. The studied taxa represent varieties of potential importance in the Floral Industry. A new BBCH code is proposed where the annual cycle of willows is divided into clearly recognisable and easily distinguishable developmental phases which include eight principal stages, 30 secondary stages and six mesostages. Photographs illustrate the physical appearance of select stages. This proposed BBCH code shows a unified approach which may be applied to a large number of Salix species.     

Phenological growth stages of mulberry tree (Morus sp.) codification and description according to the BBCH scale

Recently, mulberry fruits have increased rapidly the production and consumption, due to its high levels of bioactive compounds, excellent taste and nutritional value. Nevertheless there is poorly information about its phenology. In the present study, the different phenological growth stages of mulberry are characterised according to the BBCH (Biologische Bundesanstalt, Bundessortenamt Chemische Industrie) scale. Eight of the 10 principal developmental stages from BBCH scale were described for Morus sp., starting at bud development (stage 0) and ending at the senescence and beginning of the rest period (stage 9). The BBCH code for this species provides a consensual unified approach for standardisation of phenological stages in mulberry, moreover to facilitate agronomic practices.     

Determination of major ginsenosides in Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng) using high-performance liquid chromatography

In order to determine the active ingredients in root extracts of Panax quinquefolius (American ginseng), a gradient HPLC method involving UV photodiode array detection was applied to separate and quantify simultaneously the ginsenosides Rb1, Rb2, Rc, Rd, Re, Rf and Rg1. All ginseng saponins were baseline-resolved under the selected conditions, and the detection limits were 1.0 microg/mL or less. The method has been applied to analyse ginsenosides extracted from American ginseng cultivated in both Wisconsin and Illinois. Ginsenosides Re and Rb1 were the two main ginseng saponins in the root. The amounts of Re in 5- and 7-year Illinois-cultivated samples were greater than those found in ginseng cultivated for 3 or 4 years in Wisconsin, whereas the levels of Rb1 were greater in the younger Wisconsin samples.