Regulation of the G2/M phase of the cell cycle by sperm associated antigen 8 (SPAG8) protein

Sperm associated antigen 8 (SPAG8), a testis‐specific protein produced during male germ cell differentiation, was isolated from a human testis expression library using antibodies found in the serum obtained from an infertile woman. It was found to have a close functional relationship with microtubules. In this study, we generated a stably expressing SPAG8 CHO‐K1 cell line. Immunofluorescence confocal microscopy showed that SPAG8 was concentrated at the microtubule‐organizing center (MTOC) during prophase. As the cells progressed into metaphase, it co‐localized with α‐tubulin on the spindle. In anaphase, it was detected on both astral microtubules and mid‐zone. Following cytokinesis, SPAG8 resumed its localization on the MTOC. Meanwhile, flow cytometry analysis found that SPAG8 prolonged the G2/M phase of CHO‐K1 cells stably expressing SPAG8. Furthermore, 3‐(4,5‐dimethylthiazol‐2‐yl)‐2,5‐diphenyltetrazolium bromide (MTT) assay showed that SPAG8 inhibited the proliferation of the stable cells. SPAG8 might be involved in the regulation of cell cycle by changing the phosphorylation level of Tyr15 on cdc2. These results suggest that SPAG8 might play a role in cell division during spermatogenesis. Copyright © 2009 John Wiley & Sons, Ltd.     

The positive circadian regulators CLOCK and BMAL1 control G2/M cell cycle transition through Cyclin B1

We previously identified a tight bidirectional phase coupling between the circadian clock and the cell cycle. To understand the role of the CLOCK/BMAL1 complex, representing the main positive regulator of the circadian oscillator, we knocked down Bmal1 or Clock in NIH3T3^3C mouse fibroblasts (carrying fluorescent reporters for clock and cell cycle phase) and analyzed timing of cell division in individual cells and cell populations. Inactivation of Bmal1 resulted in a loss of circadian rhythmicity and a lengthening of the cell cycle, originating from delayed G2/M transition. Subsequent molecular analysis revealed reduced levels of Cyclin B1, an important G2/M regulator, upon suppression of Bmal1 gene expression. In complete agreement with these experimental observations, simulation of Bmal1 knockdown in a computational model for coupled mammalian circadian clock and cell cycle oscillators (now incorporating Cyclin B1 induction by BMAL1) revealed a lengthening of the cell cycle. Similar data were obtained upon knockdown of Clock gene expression. In conclusion, the CLOCK/BMAL1 complex controls cell cycle progression at the level of G2/M transition through regulation of Cyclin B1 expression.     

Involvement of the role of Chk1 in lithium-induced G2/M phase cell cycle arrest in hepatocellular carcinoma cells

Lithium, a therapeutic agent for bipolar disorder, can induce G2/M arrest in various cells, but the mechanism is unclear. In this article, we demonstrated that lithium arrested hepatocellular carcinoma cell SMMC-7721 at G2/M checkpoint by inducing the phosphorylation of cdc2 (Tyr-15). This effect was p53 independent and not concerned with the inhibition of glycogen synthase kinase-3 and inositol monophosphatase, two well-documented targets of lithium. Checkpoint kinase 1 (Chk1), a critical enzyme in DNA damage-induced G2/M arrest, was at least partially responsible for the lithium action. The lithium-induced phosphorylation of cdc2 and G2/M arrest was abrogated largely by SB218078, a potent Chk1 inhibitor, as well as by Chk1 siRNA or the over-expression of kinase dead Chk1. Furthermore, lithium-induced cdc25C phosphorylation in 7721 cells and in vitro kinase assay showed that the activity of Chk1 was enhanced after lithium treatment. Interestingly, the increase of Chk1 activity by lithium may be independent of ataxia telangiectasia mutated (ATM)/ATM and Rad3-related (ATR) kinase. This is because no elevated phosphorylation on Chk1 (Ser-317 and Ser-345) was observed after lithium treatment. Moreover, caffeine, a known ATM/ATR kinase inhibitor, relieved the phosphorylation of cdc2 (Tyr-15) by hydroxyurea, but not that by lithium. Our study's results revealed the role of Chk1 in lithium-induced G2/M arrest. Given that Chk1 has been proposed to be a novel tumor suppressor, we suggest that the effect of lithium on Chk1 and cell cycle is useful in tumor prevention and therapy.     

Relevance of histone H1 kinase activity to the G2/M transition during the cell cycle ofDictyostelium discoideum

The implication of histone H1 kinase activity for the G2/M transition during the cell cycle was investigated usingDictyostelium discoideum Ax-2. Histone H1 kinase with its activity was purified from cell extracts by the use of p13^suc1 affinity gel. In the vegetative cell cycle, the activity of histone H1 kinase including Cdc2 kinase was found using synchronized Ax-2 cells to be highest just before the entry into mitosis. The activity also was markedly enhanced just prior to the M phase from which developing cells (possibly prespore cells) reinitiate their cell cycle at the mound-tipped aggregate stage. These results strongly suggest the importance of Cdc2 kinase activity in the G2 to M phase transition during the cell cycle, as the case for other eukaryotic cells.     

Viral infections and cell cycle G2／M regulation

Progression of cells from G2 phase of the cell cycle to mitosis is a tightly regulated cellular process that requires activation of the Cdc2 kinase, which determines onset of mitosis in all eukaryotic cells. In both human and fission yeast(Schizosaccharomyces pombe) cells, the activity of Cdc2 is regulated in part by the phosphorylation status of tyrosine 15 (Tyrl5) on Cdc2, which is phosphorylated by Weel kinase during late G2 and is rapidly dephosphorylated by the Cdc25 tyrosine phosphatase to trigger entry into mitosis. These Cdc2 regulators are the downstream targets of two wellcharacterized G2/M checkpoint pathways which prevent cells from entering mitosis when cellular DNA is damaged or when DNA replication is inhibited. Increasing evidence suggests that Cdc2 is also commonly targeted by viral proteins,which modulate host cell cycle machinery to benefit viral survival or replication. In this review, we describe the effect of viral protein R (Vpr) encoded by human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-Ⅰ) on cell cycle G2/M regulation. Based on our current knowledge about this viral effect, we hypothesize that Vpr induces cell cycle G2 arrest through a mechanism that is to some extent different from the classic G2/M checkpoints. One the unique features distinguishing Vpr-induced G2 arrest from the classic checkpoints is the role of phosphatase 2A (PP2A) in Vpr-induced G2 arrest.Interestingly, PP2A is targeted by a number of other viral proteins including SV40 small T antigen, polyomavirus T antigen, HTLV Tax and adenovirus E4orf4. Thus an in-depth understanding of the molecular mechanisms underlying Vpr-induced G2 arrest will provide additional insights into the basic biology of cell cycle G2/M regulation and into the biological significance of this effect during host-pathogen interactions.     

Arsenic trioxide induces G2/M arrest in hepatocellular carcinoma cells by increasing the tumor suppressor PTEN expression

Arsenic trioxide (As₂O₃), an effective agent against acute promyelocytic leukemia, has been reported to inhibit the viability of solid tumors cell lines recently. The detailed molecular mechanism underlying the As₂O₃‐induced inactivation of the cdc2 and possible functional role of PTEN in the observed G2/M arrest has yet to be elucidated. Here, we assessed the role of PTEN in regulation of As₂O₃‐mediated G2/M cell cycle arrest in Hepatocellular carcinoma cell lines (HepG2 and SMMC7721). After 24 h following treatment, As₂O₃ induced a concentration‐dependent accumulation of cells in the G2/M phase of the cell cycle. The sustained G2/M arrest by As₂O₃ is associated with decreased cdc2 protein and increased phospho‐cdc2(Tyr15). As₂O₃ treatment increased Wee1 levels and decreased phospho‐Wee1(642). Moreover, As₂O₃ substantially decreased the Ser473 and Thr308 phosphorylation of Akt and upregulated PTEN expression. Downregulation of PTEN by siRNA in As₂O₃‐treated cells increased phospho‐Wee1(Ser642) while decreased phospho‐cdc2(Tyr15), resulting in decreased the G2/M cell cycle arrest. Therefore, induction of G2/M cell cycle arrest by As₂O₃ involved upregulation of PTEN. J. Cell. Biochem. 113: 3528–3535, 2012. © 2012 Wiley Periodicals, Inc.     

Adenosine induces G2/M cell‐cycle arrest by inhibiting cell mitosis progression

Cellular adenosine accumulates under stress conditions. Few papers on adenosine are concerned with its function in the cell cycle. The cell cycle is the essential mechanism by which all living things reproduce and the target machinery when cells encounter stresses, so it is necessary to examine the relationship between adenosine and the cell cycle. In the present study, adenosine was found to induce G₂/M cell‐cycle arrest. Furthermore, adenosine was found to modulate the expression of some important proteins in the cell cycle, such as cyclin B and p21, and to inhibit the transition of metaphase to anaphase in mitosis.     

Phosphorylation of CDC25A on SER283 in late S/G2 by CDK/cyclin complexes accelerates mitotic entry

The Cdc25A phosphatase is an essential activator of CDK-cyclin complexes at all steps of the eukaryotic cell cycle. The activity of Cdc25A is itself regulated in part by positive and negative feedback regulatory loops performed by its CDK-cyclin substrates that occur in G1 as well as during the G1/S and G2/M transitions. However, the regulation of Cdc25A during G2 phase progression before mitotic entry has not been intensively characterized. Here, we identify by mass spectrometry analysis a new phosphorylation event of Cdc25A on Serine283. Phospho-specific antibodies revealed that the phosphorylation of this residue appears in late S/G2 phase of an unperturbed cell cycle and is performed by CDK-cyclin complexes. Overexpression studies of wild-type and non-phosphorylatable mutant forms of Cdc25A indicated that Ser283 phosphorylation increases the G2/M-promoting activity of the phosphatase without impacting its stability or subcellular localization. Our results therefore identify a new positive regulatory loop between Cdc25A and its CDK-cyclin substrates which contributes to accelerate entry into mitosis through the regulation of Cdc25A activity in G2.     

SNHG16 as the miRNA let-7b-5p sponge facilitates the G2/M and epithelial-mesenchymal transition by regulating CDC25B and HMGA2 expression in hepatocellular carcinoma

Long noncoding RNAs (lncRNAs) play crucial roles in hepatocellular carcinoma (HCC). However, the underlying molecular mechanisms of small nucleolar RNA host gene 16 (SNHG16) for regulating the cell cycle and epithelial to mesenchymal transition (EMT) remain elusive. In this study, SNHG16 expression profiles of HCC tissues or cell lines were compared with those of normal tissues or hepatocyte cell line. The effect of SNHG16 knockdown in HCC cell lines was investigated by using in vitro loss-of-function experiments and in vivo nude mouse experiments. The potential molecular regulatory mechanism of SNHG16 in HCC progression was investigated by using mechanistic experiments and rescue assays. The results revealed that SNHG16 was highly expressed in HCC tissues and cell lines, which predicted poor prognosis of HCC patients. On one hand, the downregulation of SNHG16 induced G2/M cell cycle arrest, inducing cell apoptosis and suppression of cell proliferation. On the other hand, it inhibited cell metastasis and EMT progression demonstrated by in vitro loss-of-function cell experiments. Besides, knockdown of SNHG16 increased the sensitivity of HCC cells to cisplatin. For the detailed mechanism, SNHG16 was demonstrated to act as a let-7b-5p sponge in HCC. SNHG16 facilitated the G2/M cell cycle transition by directly acting on the let-7b-5p/CDC25B/CDK1 axis, and promoted cell metastasis and EMT progression by regulating the let-7b-5p/HMGA2 axis in HCC. In addition, the mechanism of SNHG16 for regulating HCC cell proliferation and metastasis was further confirmed in vivo by mouse experiments. Furthermore, these results can provide new insights into HCC treatment and its molecular pathogenesis, which may enlighten the further research of the molecular pathogenesis of HCC.     

RNA干扰Chk1/2调控二烯丙基二硫诱导的G2/M期阻滞作用及相关周期蛋白表达

在细胞周期检测点信号传导通路中,Chkl和Chk2起着重要作用,主要参与G2/M期细胞周期检测点信号传导.首先采用RNAi技术在BGC823细胞中将Chk1、Chk2基因沉默,Chk1、Chk2 siRNA转染BGC823细胞后24h加入15mg/L二烯丙基二硫(diallyl disulfide,DADS),接着通过Real-timePCR、Western blot分析Chk1、Chk2基因在转染前后的表达差异,然后运用流式细胞术和Western blot分析Chk1、Chk2基因沉默后对DADS诱导的细胞周期G2/M期阻滞作用及相关周期蛋白CDC25C和cyclinB1表达的影响.实验结果表明,与未转染对照组相比,转染Chk1、Chk2siRNA后BGC823细胞中Chk1、Chk2表达明显被抑制,二者的mRNA表达分别下降84.7%和69.0%,蛋白质水平分别下降73.4%和78.5%.流式细胞术分析结果发现,ChklsiRNA转染的BGC823细胞在15mg/LDADS处理24h后,G2/M期比例由单纯DADS处理组的58.1%降至10.4%(P<0.05).但Chk2 siRNA转染后加入15mg/...     

A molecular understanding of d‐homoestrone‐induced G2/M cell cycle arrest in HeLa human cervical carcinoma cells

2‐Methoxyestradiol (ME), one of the most widely investigated A‐ring‐modified metabolites of estrone, exerts significant anticancer activity on numerous cancer cell lines. Its pharmacological actions, including cell cycle arrest, microtubule disruption and pro‐apoptotic activity, have already been described in detail. The currently tested d ‐ring‐modified analogue of estrone, d ‐homoestrone, selectively inhibits cervical cancer cell proliferation and induces a G2/M phase cell cycle blockade, resulting in the development of apoptosis. The question arose of whether the difference in the chemical structures of these analogues can influence the mechanism of anticancer action. The aim of the present study was therefore to elucidate the molecular contributors of intracellular processes induced by d ‐homoestrone in HeLa cells. Apoptosis triggered by d ‐homoestrone develops through activation of the intrinsic pathway, as demonstrated by determination of the activities of caspase‐8 and ‐9. It was revealed that d ‐homoestrone‐treated HeLa cells are not able to enter mitosis because the cyclin‐dependent kinase 1‐cyclin B complex loses its activity, resulting in the decreased inactivation of stathmin and a concomitant disturbance of microtubule formation. However, unlike 2‐ME, d ‐homoestrone does not exert a direct effect on tubulin polymerization. These results led to the conclusion that the d ‐homoestrone‐triggered intracellular processes resulting in a cell cycle arrest and apoptosis in HeLa cells differ from those in the case of 2‐ME. This may be regarded as an alternative mechanism of action among steroidal anticancer compounds.     

Tobacco BY-2 cells expressing fission yeast cdc25 bypass a G2/M block on the cell cycle

The mitotic inducer gene from Schizosaccharomyces pombe, Spcdc25, was used as a tool to investigate regulation of G2/M in higher plants using the BY-2 (Nicotiana tabacum) cell line as a model. Spcdc25-expressing BY-2 cells exhibited a reduced mitotic cell size through a shortening of the G2 phase. The cells often formed isodiametric double files both in BY-2 cells and in cell suspensions derived from 35S::Spcdc25 tobacco plants. In Spcdc25-expressing cells, the tobacco cyclin-dependent kinase, NtCDKB1, showed high activity in early S phase, S/G2 and early M phase, whereas in empty vector cells CDKB1 activity was transiently high in early S phase but thereafter remained lower. Spcdc25-expressing cells also bypassed a block on G2/M imposed by the cytokinin biosynthetic inhibitor lovastatin (LVS). Surprisingly, cytokinins were at remarkably low levels in Spcdc25-expressing cells compared with the empty vector, explaining why these cells retained mitotic competence despite the presence of LVS. In conclusion, synchronised Spcdc25-expressing BY-2 cells divided prematurely at a small cell size, and they exhibited premature, but sustained, CDKB1 activity even though endogenous cytokinins were virtually undetectable.     

Rapid G0/1 transition and cell cycle progression in CD8+ T cells compared to CD4+ T cells following in vitro stimulation

T‐cell population consists of two major subsets, CD4⁺ T cells and CD8⁺ T cells, which can be distinguished by the expression of CD4 or CD8 molecules, respectively. Although they play quite different roles in the immune system, many of their basic cellular processes such as proliferation following stimulation are presumably common. In this study, we have carefully analyzed time–course of G0/1 transition as well as cell cycle progression in the two subsets of quiescent T‐cell population following in vitro growth stimulation. We found that CD8⁺ T cells promote G0/1 transition more rapidly and drive their cell cycle progression faster compared to CD4⁺ T cells. In addition, expression of CD25 and effects of its blockade revealed that IL‐2 is implicated in the rapid progression, but not the earlier G0/1 transition, of CD8⁺ T cells.     

Identification of G2/M phase transition by sequential nuclear and cytoplasmic changes and molecular markers in mice intestinal epithelial cells

Although the regulatory network of G2/M phase transition has been intensively studied in mammalian cell lines, the identification of morphological and molecular markers to identify G2/M phase transition in vivo remains elusive. In this study, we found no obvious morphological changes between the S phase and G2 phase in mice intestinal epithelial cells. The G2 phase could be identified by Brdu incorporation resistance, marginal and scattered foci of histone H3 phosphorylated at Ser10 (pHH3), and relatively intact Golgi ribbon. Prophase starts with nuclear transformation in situ, which was identified by a series of prophase markers including nuclear translocation of cyclinB1, fragmentation of the Golgi complex, and a significant increase in pHH3. The nucleus started to move upwards in the late prophase and finally rounded up at the apical surface. Then, metaphase was initiated as the level of pHH3 peaked. During anaphase and telophase, pHH3 sharply decreased, while Ki67 was obviously bound to chromosomes, and PCNA was distributed throughout the whole cell. Based on the aforementioned markers and Brdu pulse labeling, it was estimated to take about one hour for most crypt cells to go through the G2 phase and about two hours to go through the G2-M phase. It took much longer for crypt base columnar (CBC) stem cells to undergo G2-prophase than rapid transit amplifying cells. In summary, a series of sequentially presenting markers could be used to indicate the progress of G2/M events in intestinal epithelial cells and other epithelial systems in vivo.     

G2/M cell cycle arrest and induction of apoptosis by a stilbenoid, 3,4,5-trimethoxy-4'-bromo-cis-stilbene, in human lung cancer cells

Stilbenoids, including resveratrol (3,5,4'-trihydroxy-trans-stilbene) which is a naturally occurring phytoalexin abundant in grapes and several plants, have been shown to be active in inhibiting proliferation and inducing apoptosis in human cancer cell lines. Using resveratrol as the prototype, we have synthesized various analogs and evaluated their growth inhibitory effects in cultured human cancer cells. In the present study, we show that one of the stilbenoids, 3,4,5-trimethoxy-4'-bromo-cis-stilbene (BCS), was more effective than its corresponding trans-isomer and resveratrol on the inhibition of cancer cell growth. Prompted by the strong growth inhibitory activity of BCS (IC50; 0.03 microM) compared to its trans-isomer (IC50; 6.36 microM) and resveratrol (IC50; 33.0 microM) in cultured human lung cancer cells (A549), we investigated its mechanism of action. BCS induced arrest at the G2/M phase cell cycle in the early time and subsequently increased in the sub-G1 phase DNA contents in a time-dependent manner, indicating induction of apoptosis. Morphological observation with round-up shape and DNA fragmentation was also revealed the apoptotic phenomena. BCS treatment elevated the expression levels of the pro-apoptotic protein p53, the cyclin-dependent kinase inhibitor p21, and the release of cytochrome c in the cytosol. The down-regulation of checkpoint protein cyclin B1 by BCS was well correlated with the cell cycle arrest at G2/M. These data suggest the potential of BCS to serve as a cancer chemotherapeutic or chemopreventive agent by virtue of arresting the cell cycle and induction of apoptosis of human lung cancer cells.     

Speedy: a novel cell cycle regulator of the G2/M transition

Stage VI Xenopus oocytes are suspended at the G2/M transition of meiosis I, and represent an excellent system for the identification and examination of cell cycle regulatory proteins. Essential cell cycle regulators such as MAPK, cyclins and mos have the ability to induce oocyte maturation, causing the resumption of the cell cycle from its arrested state. We have identified the product of a novel Xenopus gene, Speedy or Spy1, which is able to induce rapid maturation of Xenopus oocytes, resulting in the induction of germinal vesicle breakdown (GVBD) and activation of M-phasepromoting factor (MPF). Spy1 activates the MAPK pathway in oocytes, and its ability to induce maturation is dependent upon this pathway. Spy1-induced maturation occurs much more rapidly than maturation induced by other cell cycle regulators including progesterone, mos or Ras, and does not require any of these proteins or hormones, indicating that Spy1-induced maturation proceeds through a novel regulatory pathway. In addition, we have shown that Spy1 physically interacts with cdk2, and prematurely activates cdk2 kinase activity. Spy1 therefore represents a novel cell cycle regulatory protein, inducing maturation through the activation of MAPK and MPF, and also leading to the premature activation of cdk2.     

TAB182对电离辐射诱发细胞周期G2/M阻滞的调节作用

TAB182是一个端锚聚合酶1（tankyrase 1）结合蛋白,它在体外能够被tankyrase 1发生二磷酸腺苷核糖基化(PAR)修饰,其生物学功能目前尚不明确.本研究发现,TAB182蛋白水平受电离辐射诱导表达,HeLa细胞经过4 Gy照射处理时,TAB182在2 h表达含量最高; 经过不同剂量照射处理,2 h后2 Gy、4 Gy照射剂量组HeLa细胞中TAB182的表达有明显增加. 通过shRNA沉默HeLa细胞中TAB182基因表达,导致其对4 Gy及以下剂量 辐射的敏感性增加,但对8 Gy大剂量照射的敏感性没有明显变化. 与对照组相比,4 Gy照射诱发TAB182基因沉默细胞的G2/M期阻滞时间显著延长.抑制TAB182表达导致细胞中DNA损伤反应蛋白DNA PKcs、ATM、Chk2的表达水平显著降低. 实验结果提示,TAB182蛋白参与放射DNA损伤信号反应和调控细胞周期G₂/M进程.