人类免疫缺陷病毒辅助受体的研究进展

人类免疫缺陷病毒（ＨＩＶ）进入靶细胞需要ＣＤ４受体及辅助受体的参与,不同的ＨＩＶ株进入靶细胞需不同的辅助受体,亲Ｔ细胞ＨＩＶ株进入靶细胞需融合因子辅助,而亲巨噬细胞ＨＩＶ株进入靶细胞则需另一种辅助受体ＣＣ－ＣＫＲ－５辅助受体的发现,为研究ＨＩＶ的致病机制及艾滋病的治疗提供新的方向。     

艾滋病研究进展

ＣＤ４分子是ＨＩＶ进入靶细胞的主要受体,但仅有ＣＤ４尚不足以使ＨＩＶ侵入细胞。趋化因子及其辅助受体的发现使人们能够更好地了解ＨＩＶ进入细胞的机制。ＨＩＶ感染而无症状者体内β－趋化因子及某些辅助受体缺失纯合体的增多,说明β－趋化因子及某些辅助受体缺失纯合体在延缓艾滋病发生发展方面起着重要作用。     

树Ju免疫细胞体外感染Ⅰ型人免疫缺陷病毒的实验研究

至今可以感染Ⅰ型人免疫缺陷病毒（ＨＩＶ－１）的动物只有黑猩猩和长臂猿,这严重阻碍了ＨＩＶ－１的疫苗研究和治疗研究。因此,寻找新的可以感染ＨＩＶ－１的动物模型成为十分迫切的课题。已知树Ｊu对许多重要的医学病毒易感,为了探讨树Ｊu是否可以感染ＨＩＶ－１,利用不同辅助受体的５种ＨＩＶ－１病毒株。体外感染云南野生成年树Ju的淋巴细胞和单核／巨噬细胞;同时还用这些病毒感染人外周血淋巴细胞或单核细胞。然后用ＲＴ－ＰＣＲ、ＰＣＲ和流式细胞术分别进行了检测,用ＲＴ－ＰＣＲ方法未检测到感染上清中有病毒粒子的存在,用ＰＣＲ法未能发现树Ｊu的这些免疫细胞中有前病毒ＤＮＡ,用流式细胞术也未能在这些感染ＨＩＶ－１的树Ｊu细胞的表面检测到特异抗原;而感染ＨＩＶ－１的人免疫细胞均为阳性结果。实验结果表明树Ju的这些免疫细胞在体外未能感染上ＨＩＶ－１,可能的原因是树Ｊu的这些免疫细胞的ＨＩＶ－１受体（ＣＤ４）和辅助受体（ＣＣＲ５或ＣＸＣＲ４）与人的免疫细胞胞差别较大。     

HIV共受体CXCR4研究进展

ＣＸＣＲ是ＨＩＶ－１侵染宿细胞的主要共受体之一,研究结果表明ＣＸＣＲ４在细胞表面的表达受多种因素的影响;对ＣＸＣＲ４结构的研究通常是通过嵌合体受体,ＣＸＣＲ４部分区域删除和点突变等方式来进行;ＣＸＣＲ４结构功能的研究对新的抗病毒药物的设计、阻止Ｔ－向性ＨＩＶ－１的进一步侵染、延缓、ＡＩＤＳ的发生有着重要的意义。     

CD28共刺激可促HIV阳性患者CD_4~ T细胞增殖

ＣＤ２８共刺激可促ＨＩＶ阳性患者ＣＤ＋４Ｔ细胞增殖ＣＤ＋４Ｔ细胞是人免疫缺陷病毒（ＨＩＶ）感染的主要细胞。由于在体外难以诱导ＨＩＶ感染者的自体ＣＤ＋４Ｔ细胞增殖,因此限制了许多疗法如基因治疗、免疫重建疗法的应用。已知在Ｔ细胞活化中,Ｔ细胞受体（ＴＣＲ...     

HIV共受体—CC类趋化因子受体—5

ＨＩＶ共受体——ＣＣ类趋化因子受体┐５黄仕和秦椿华（卫生部武汉生物制品研究所,武昌４３００６０）（美国得克萨斯Ａ＆Ｍ大学毒理学系）关键词ＨＩＶ共受体ＣＣ类趋化因子受体－５继冯愈等发现融合素是嗜Ｔ细胞ＨＩＶ－１的融合辅助因子后,邓洪魁及其同事发现了初始...     

细胞内抗体在HIV-1感染及爱滋病治疗中的应用

ＨＩＶ1是慢病毒亚家族的成员,是ＡＩＤＳ的病因。像其它逆转录病毒一样,ＨＩＶ1基因组包含ｐｏｌ(聚合酶)、ｅｎｖ(包膜)结构基因,也编码Ｒｅｖ(毒粒蛋白调节子)、Ｔａｔ(反式激活蛋白)等调节蛋白。抗ＨＩＶ1细胞内抗体由细胞合成并导向其结合靶ＨＩＶ1蛋白和发挥抑制功能的细胞隔室。这些内抗体主要瞄准病毒生命周期中必需的蛋白质。1.包膜糖蛋白(ｅｎｖｅｌｏｐｅｇｌｙｃｏｐｒｏｔｅｉｎ)ＨＩＶ1包膜糖蛋白是作为ｇｐ160前体合成的,并在高尔基复合体上分裂为成熟的ｇｐ120/41蛋白。ｇｐ120与ＣＤ4在细胞表面和细胞内的相互作用不仅对病…     

中国HIV-1流行毒株的DNA疫苗的初步研究

为研制针对我国ＨＩＶ－１流行毒株的艾滋病毒疫苗,构建了具有代表性的ｇａｇ和ｇｐ１２０核酸疫苗,进行了初步的小鼠免疫实验。结果初步显示：（１）免疫Ｂａｌｂ／Ｃ小鼠可以产生ＨＩＶ－１特异性的体液和细胞免疫;（２）ｇａｇ和ｇｐ１２０基因联合免疫可以同时诱发针对ｇａｇ和ｇｐ１２０的细胞和体液免疫反应,而且效果比各自单独免疫要好;（３）Ｂ亚型ｇｐ１２０基因免疫可以诱发识别Ｃ亚型ｇｐ１２０抗原的ＣＴＬ反应。本     

HIV感染的辅助因子CC-CKR-5

ＨＩＶ感染的辅助因子ＣＣ┐ＣＫＲ┐５早在１９８６年，ＭａｄｄｏｎＰ．等即证明，细胞上的ＣＤ４分子不能独立地介导人类免疫缺陷病毒（ＨＩＶ）进入免疫细胞，表达人类ＣＤ４分子的小鼠基因工程细胞不被ＨＩＶ感染。此后１０年间，许多研究人员致力于寻找ＨＩＶ感染细...     

根除休眠细胞中的HIV

现行的艾滋病疗法能在ＨＩＶ浓度低到几乎测不出的情况下杀死ＨＩＶ,但却不能在任何病人中全部根除ＨＩＶ。免疫系统并没有在感染了ＨＩＶ的全部ＣＤ４细胞中活动起来,ＨＩＶ可以在处于休眠状态的ＣＤ４细胞中躲过抗艾滋病药物而保持其复制能力达数年之久。马里兰的国立过敏与传统病研究所中的一个研究组报告,在某些病人中,白细胞介素２（ＩＬ２）活化ＣＤ４细胞,使ＣＤ４细胞从隐蔽的休眠状态中兴奋起来,以致使药物和健康的免疫细胞得以破坏细胞内的ＨＩＶ。科学家给２６个艾滋病人以抗艾滋病药物联合治疗,其中１４人接受ＩＬ…     

Utilization of chemokine receptors, orphan receptors, and herpesvirus-encoded receptors by diverse human and simian immunodeficiency viruses.

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) requires both CD4 and a coreceptor to infect cells. Macrophage-tropic (M-tropic) HIV-1 strains utilize the chemokine receptor CCR5 in conjunction with CD4 to infect cells, while T-cell-tropic (T-tropic) strains generally utilize CXCR4 as a coreceptor. Some viruses can use both CCR5 and CXCR4 for virus entry (i.e., are dual-tropic), while other chemokine receptors can be used by a subset of virus strains. Due to the genetic diversity of HIV-1, HIV-2, and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV) and the potential for chemokine receptors other than CCR5 or CXCR4 to influence viral pathogenesis, we tested a panel of 28 HIV-1, HIV-2, and SIV envelope (Env) proteins for the ability to utilize chemokine receptors, orphan receptors, and herpesvirus-encoded chemokine receptor homologs by membrane fusion and virus infection assays. While all Env proteins used either CCR5 or CXCR4 or both, several also used CCR3. Use of CCR3 was strongly dependent on its surface expression levels, with a larger number of viral Env proteins being able to utilize this coreceptor at the higher levels of surface expression. ChemR1, an orphan receptor recently shown to bind the CC chemokine I309 (and therefore renamed CCR8), was expressed in monocyte and lymphocyte cell populations and functioned as a coreceptor for diverse HIV-1, HIV-2, and SIV Env proteins. Use of ChemR1/CCR8 by SIV strains was dependent in part on V3 loop sequences. The orphan receptor V28 supported Env-mediated cell-cell fusion by four T- or dual-tropic HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains. Three additional orphan receptors failed to function for any of the 28 Env proteins tested. Likewise, five of six seven-transmembrane-domain receptors encoded by herpesviruses did not support Env-mediated membrane fusion. However, the chemokine receptor US28, encoded by cytomegalovirus, did support inefficient infection by two HIV-1 strains. These findings indicate that additional chemokine receptors can function as HIV and SIV coreceptors and that surface expression levels can strongly influence coreceptor use.     

CD4-independent use of Rhesus CCR5 by human immunodeficiency virus Type 2 implicates an electrostatic interaction between the CCR5 N terminus and the gp120 C4 domain

Envelope glycoproteins (Envs) of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 (HIV-2) are frequently able to use chemokine receptors, CXCR4 or CCR5, in the absence of CD4. However, while these Envs are commonly dual-tropic, no isolate has been described to date that is CD4 independent on both CXCR4 and CCR5. In this report we show that a variant of HIV-2/NIHz, termed HIV-2/vcp, previously shown to utilize CXCR4 without CD4, is also CD4 independent on rhesus (rh) CCR5, but requires CD4 to fuse with human (hu) CCR5. The critical determinant for this effect was an acidic amino acid at position 13 in the CCR5 N terminus, which is an asparagine in huCCR5 and an aspartic acid in rhCCR5. Transferring the huCCR5 N terminus with an N13D substitution to CCR2b or CXCR2 was sufficient to render these heterologous chemokine receptors permissive for CD4-independent fusion. Chimeric Envs between HIV-2/vcp and a CD4-dependent clone of HIV-2/NIHz as well as site-directed Env mutations implicated a positively charged amino acid (lysine or arginine) at position 427 in the C4 region of the HIV-2/vcp env gene product (VCP) gp120 as a key determinant for this phenotype. Because CD4-independent use of CCR5 mapped to a negatively charged amino acid in the CCR5 N terminus and a positively charged amino acid in the gp120 C4 domain, an electrostatic interaction between these residues or domains is likely. Although not required for CD4-dependent fusion, this interaction may serve to increase the binding affinity of Env and CCR5 and/or to facilitate subsequent conformational changes that are required for fusion. Because the structural requirements for chemokine receptor use by HIV are likely to be more stringent in the absence of CD4, CD4-independent viruses should be particularly useful in dissecting molecular events that are critical for viral entry.     

Promiscuous use of CC and CXC chemokine receptors in cell-to-cell fusion mediated by a human immunodeficiency virus type 2 envelope protein.

The CC chemokine receptors CCR5, CCR2, and CCR3 and the CXC chemokine receptor CXCR4 have been implicated as CD4-associated cofactors in the entry of primary and cell line-adapted human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) strains. CXCR4 is also a receptor for T-cell-line-adapted, CD4-independent strains of HIV-2. With the exception of this latter example, little has been reported on the entry cofactors used by HIV-2 strains. Here we show that a CD4-dependent, T-cell-line-adapted HIV-2 strain uses CXCR4 and, to a lesser extent, CCR3 for fusion with and infectious entry into cells. In a cell-to-cell fusion assay, the envelope protein of this virus can utilize a wider repertoire of chemokine receptors to induce fusion. These include CCR1, CCR2, CCR3, CCR4, CCR5, CXCR2, and CXCR4. Kinetic analysis indicated that cell lines expressing the receptors that support infection, CXCR4 and CCR3, form syncytia more rapidly than do cell lines expressing the other receptors. Nevertheless, although less efficient, fusion with CXCR2 expressing cells was specific, since it was inhibited by antibodies against CXCR2. The extensive use of chemokine receptors in cell-to-cell fusion has implications for understanding the molecular basis of CD4-chemokine receptor-induced lentivirus fusion and may have relevance for syncytium formation and the direct cell-to-cell transfer of virus in vivo.     

CD4-independent infection of two CD4(-)/CCR5(-)/CXCR4(+) pre-T-cell lines by human and simian immunodeficiency viruses

The infection of CD4-negative cells by variants of tissue culture-adapted human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) or HIV-2 strains has been shown to be mediated by the CXCR4 coreceptor. Here we show that two in vitro-established CD4(-)/CCR5(-)/CXCR4(+) human pre-T-cell lines (A3 and A5) can be productively infected by wild-type laboratory-adapted T-cell-tropic HIV-1 and HIV-2 strains in a CD4-independent, CXCR4-dependent fashion. Despite the absence of CCR5 expression, A3 and A5 cells were susceptible to infection by the simian immunodeficiency viruses SIVmac239 and SIVmac316. Thus, at least in A3 and A5 cells, one or more of the chemokine receptors can efficiently support the entry of HIV and SIV isolates in the absence of CD4. These findings suggest that to infect cells of different compartments, HIV and SIV could have evolved in vivo to bypass CD4 and to interact directly with an alternative receptor.     

A Broad Range of Chemokine Receptors Are Used by Primary Isolates of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 2 as Coreceptors with CD4

Like human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and simian immunodeficiency virus (SIV), HIV-2 requires a coreceptor in addition to CD4 for entry into cells. HIV and SIV coreceptor molecules belong to a family of seven-transmembrane-domain G-protein-coupled receptors. Here we show that primary HIV-2 isolates can use a broad range of coreceptor molecules, including CCR1, CCR2b, CCR3, CCR4, CCR5, and CXCR4. Despite broad coreceptor use, the chemokine ligand SDF-1 substantially blocked HIV-2 infectivity of peripheral blood mononuclear cells, indicating that its receptor, CXCR4, was the predominant coreceptor for infection of these cells. However, expression of CXCR4 together with CD4 on some cell types did not confer susceptibility to infection by all CXCR4-using virus isolates. These data therefore indicate that another factor(s) influences the ability of HIV-2 to replicate in human cell types that express the appropriate receptors for virus entry.     

Replication-competent variants of human immunodeficiency virus type 2 lacking the V3 loop exhibit resistance to chemokine receptor antagonists

Entry of human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) and HIV-2 requires interactions between the envelope glycoprotein (Env) on the virus and CD4 and a chemokine receptor, either CCR5 or CXCR4, on the cell surface. The V3 loop of the HIV gp120 glycoprotein plays a critical role in this process, determining tropism for CCR5- or CXCR4-expressing cells, but details of how V3 interacts with these receptors have not been defined. Using an iterative process of deletion mutagenesis and in vitro adaptation of infectious viruses, variants of HIV-2 were derived that could replicate without V3, either with or without a deletion of the V1/V2 variable loops. The generation of these functional but markedly minimized Envs required adaptive changes on the gp120 core and gp41 transmembrane glycoprotein. V3-deleted Envs exhibited tropism for both CCR5- and CXCR4-expressing cells, suggesting that domains on the gp120 core were mediating interactions with determinants shared by both coreceptors. Remarkably, HIV-2 Envs with V3 deletions became resistant to small-molecule inhibitors of CCR5 and CXCR4, suggesting that these drugs inhibit wild-type viruses by disrupting a specific V3 interaction with the coreceptor. This study represents a proof of concept that HIV Envs lacking V3 alone or in combination with V1/V2 that retain functional domains required for viral entry can be derived. Such minimized Envs may be useful in understanding Env function, screening for new inhibitors of gp120 core interactions with chemokine receptors, and designing novel immunogens for vaccines.     

Identification of gp120 binding sites on CXCR4 by using CD4-independent human immunodeficiency virus type 2 Env proteins

Human immunodeficiency virus (HIV) and simian (SIV) immunodeficiency virus entry is mediated by binding of the viral envelope glycoprotein (Env) to CD4 and chemokine receptors, CCR5 and/or CXCR4. CD4 induces extensive conformational changes that expose and/or induce formation of a chemokine receptor binding site on gp120. CD4-independent Env's of HIV type 1 (HIV-1), HIV-2, and SIV have been identified that exhibit exposed chemokine receptor binding sites and can bind directly to CCR5 or CXCR4 in the absence of CD4. While many studies have examined determinants for gp120-CCR5 binding, analysis of gp120-CXCR4 binding has been hindered by the apparently lower affinity of this interaction for X4-tropic HIV-1 isolates. We show here that gp120 proteins from two CD4-independent HIV-2 Env's, VCP and ROD/B, bind directly to CXCR4 with an apparently high affinity. By use of CXCR4 N-terminal deletion constructs, CXCR4-CXCR2 chimeras, and human-rat CXCR4 chimeras, binding determinants were shown to reside in the amino (N) terminus, extracellular loop 2 (ECL2), and ECL3. Alanine-scanning mutagenesis of charged residues, tyrosines, and phenylalanines in extracellular CXCR4 domains implicated multiple amino acids in the N terminus (E14/E15, D20, Y21, and D22), ECL2 (D187, R188, F189, Y190, and D193), and ECL3 (D262, E268, E277, and E282) in binding, although minor differences were noted between VCP and ROD/B. However, mutations in CXCR4 that markedly reduced binding did not necessarily hinder cell-cell fusion by VCP or ROD/B, especially in the presence of CD4. These gp120 proteins will be useful in dissecting determinants for CXCR4 binding and Env triggering and in evaluating pharmacologic inhibitors of the gp120-CXCR4 interaction.     

Vaccinia virus replication is not affected by APOBEC3 family members

Background

HIV-1 entry into cells is a multifaceted process involving target cell CD4 and the chemokine receptors, CXCR4 or CCR5. The lipid composition of the host cell plays a significant role in the HIV fusion process as it orchestrates the appropriate disposition of CD4 and co-receptors required for HIV-1 envelope glycoprotein (Env)-mediated fusion. The cell membrane is primarily composed of sphingolipids and cholesterol. The effects of lipid modulation on CD4 disposition in the membrane and their role in HIV-1 entry have extensively been studied. To focus on the role of lipid composition on chemokine receptor function, we have by-passed the CD4 requirement for HIV-1 Env-mediated fusion by using a CD4-independent strain of HIV-1 Env.

Results

Cell fusion mediated by a CD4-independent strain of HIV-1 Env was monitored by observing dye transfer between Env-expressing cells and NIH3T3 cells bearing CXCR4 or CCR5 in the presence or absence of CD4. Chemokine receptor signaling was assessed by monitoring changes in intracellular [Ca²⁺] mobilization induced by CCR5 or CXCR4 ligand. To modulate target membrane cholesterol or sphingolipids we used Methyl-β-cyclodextrin (MβCD) or 1-phenyl-2-hexadecanoylamino-3-morpholino-1-propanol (PPMP), respectively. Treatment of the target cells with these agents did not change the levels of CD4 or CXCR4, but reduced levels of CCR5 on the cell surface. Chemokine receptor signalling was inhibited by cholesterol removal but not by treatment with PPMP. HIV-1 Env mediated fusion was inhibited by >50% by cholesterol removal. Overall, PPMP treatment appeared to slow down the rates of CD4-independent HIV-1 Env-mediated Fusion. However, in the case of CXCR4-dependent fusion, the differences between untreated and PPMP-treated cells did not appear to be significant.

Conclusion

Although modulation of cholesterol and sphingolipids has similar effects on CD4 -dependent HIV-1 Env-mediated fusion, sphingolipid modulation had little effect on CD4-independent HIV-1 Env-mediated fusion. Chemokine receptor function remained intact following treatment of cells with PPMP. Therefore such treatment may be considered a more suitable agent to inhibit CD4 dependent HIV-1 infection.     

HIV chemokine receptor inhibitors as novel anti-HIV drugs

The chemokine receptors CXCR4 and CCR5 are the main coreceptors used by the T-cell-tropic (CXCR4-using, X4) and macrophage-tropic (CCR5-using, R5) HIV-1 strains, respectively, for entering their CD4⁺ target cells. In this review, we focus on the function of these chemokine receptors in HIV infection and their role as novel targets for viral inhibition. Besides some modified chemokines with antiviral activity, several low-molecular weight CCR5 and CXCR4 antagonistic compounds have been described with potent antiviral activity. The best CXCR4 antagonists described are the bicyclam derivatives, which consistently block X4 but also R5/X4 viral replication in PBMCs. We believe that chemokine receptor antagonists will become important new antiviral drugs to combat AIDS. Both CXCR4 and CCR5 chemokine receptor inhibitors will be needed in combination and even in combinations of antiviral drugs that also target other aspects of the HIV replication cycle to obtain optimum antiviral therapeutic effects.     

Expression and Use of Human Immunodeficiency Virus Type 1 Coreceptors by Human Alveolar Macrophages

Human immunodeficiency virus type 1 (HIV-1) requires, in addition to CD4, coreceptors of the CC or CXC chemokine families for productive infection of T cells and cells of the monocyte-macrophage lineage. Based on the hypothesis that coreceptor expression on alveolar macrophages (AM) may influence HIV-1 infection of AM in the lung, this study analyzes the expression and utilization of HIV-1 coreceptors on AM of healthy individuals. AM were productively infected with five different primary isolates of HIV-1. Levels of surface expression of CCR5, CXCR4, and CD4 were low compared to those of blood monocytes, but CCR3 was not detectable. mRNA for CCR5, CXCR4, CCR2, and CCR3 were all detectable, but to varying degrees and with variability among donors. Expression of CCR5, CXCR4, and CCR2 mRNA was downregulated following stimulation with lipopolysaccharide (LPS). In contrast, secretion of the chemokines RANTES, MIP-1alpha, and MIP-1beta was upregulated with LPS stimulation. Interestingly, HIV-1 replication was diminished following LPS stimulation. Infection of AM with HIV-1 in the presence of the CC chemokines demonstrated blocking of infection. Together, these studies demonstrate that AM can be infected by a variety of primary HIV-1 isolates, AM express a variety of chemokine receptors, the dominant coreceptor used for HIV entry into AM is CCR5, the expression of these receptors is dependent on the state of activation of AM, and the ability of HIV-1 to infect AM may be modulated by expression of the chemokine receptors and by chemokines per se.