Lack of trnL intron in the thermoacidophilic red alga Galdieria sulphuraria (Galdieri) Merola

Abstract

The plastid trnC‐trnL(UAA)‐ilvH region from Galdieria sulphuraria was cloned and sequenced with the aim of verifying the absence of the trnL intron. The sequence alignment shows both the absence of a trnL intron and the colinearity of the whole region of the plastidial DNA of G. sulphuraria with that of the other thermoacidophilic red algae.     

Heterotrophic high cell-density fed-batch cultures of the phycocyanin-producing red alga Galdieria sulphuraria

Growth and phycocyanin production in batch and fed-batch cultures of the microalga Galdieria sulphuraria 074G, which was grown heterotrophically in darkness on glucose, fructose, sucrose, and sugar beet molasses, was investigated. In batch cultures, specific growth rates and yields of biomass dry weight on the pure sugars were 1.08-1.15 day-1 and 0.48-0.50 g g-1, respectively. They were slightly higher when molasses was the carbon source. Cellular phycocyanin contents during the exponential growth phase were 3-4 mg g-1 in dry weight. G. sulphuraria was able to tolerate concentrations of glucose and fructose of up to 166 g L-1 (0.9 M) and an ammonium sulfate concentration of 22 g L-1 (0.17 M) without negative effects on the specific growth rate. When the total concentration of dissolved substances in the growth medium exceeded 1-2 M, growth was completely inhibited. In carbon-limited fed-batch cultures, biomass dry weight concentrations of 80-120 g L-1 were obtained while phycocyanin accumulated to concentrations between 250 and 400 mg L-1. These results demonstrate that G. sulphuraria is well suited for growth in heterotrophic cultures at very high cell densities, and that such cultures produce significant amounts of phycocyanin. Furthermore, the productivity of phycocyanin in the heterotrophic fed-batch cultures of G. sulphuraria was higher than is attained in outdoor cultures of Spirulina platensis, where phycocyanin is presently obtained.     

Crystal structure of tandem ACT domain-containing protein ACTP from Galdieria sulphuraria

The ACT domain is a structurally conserved small molecule binding domain which is mostly involved in amino acid and purine metabolism. Here, we report the crystal structure of a tandem ACT domain-containing protein (ACTP) from Galdieria sulphuraria. The two ACTP monomers in the asymmetric unit form a dimer with a non-crystallographic twofold axis in a domain-swapped manner, showing a horseshoe-like structure with a central crevice. This structure contributes to expand our knowledge on the structural diversity of ACT domain-containing proteins.     

The effect of nitrogen starvation on the ultrastructure and pigment composition of chloroplasts in the acidothermophilic microalga Galdieria sulphuraria

We studied the effect of nitrogen starvation on growth indices, vitality, ultrastructure, and the photosynthetic apparatus of unique acidothermophilic microalga Galdieria sulphuraria (Galdieri) Merola. Long-term nitrogen starvation ceased G. sulphuraria growth and cell division. During the first days of starvation, phycobiliproteins degraded first, then the content of chlorophyll and carotenoids decreased to trace amounts, chloroplast reduced, cell wall became thinner, and storage compounds accumulated. However, the cells were alive. A comparison with the effects of nitrogen starvation on other photosynthesizing organisms showed that suppression of cell division, reduction of the photosynthetic apparatus to some minimum, and accumulation of storage compounds are a universal response to this stress.     

Characterization of a xylitol dehydrogenase and a d-arabitol dehydrogenase from the thermo- and acidophilic red alga Galdieria sulphuraria

Galdieria sulphuraria (Galdieri) Merola can grow heterotrophically on at least ten different polyols. We investigated their metabolic path to glycolysis/gluconeogenesis and identified two NAD-dependent polyol dehydrogenases. Activity of other enzymes metabolizing mannitol or sorbitol could not be detected. The two dehydrogenases had a broad substrate specificity and were termed xylitol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.14; substrate specificity: xylitol > d-sorbitol > d-mannitol > l-arabitol) and d-arabitol dehydrogenase (EC 1.1.1.11; substrate specificity: d-arabitol > l-fucitol > d-mannitol > d-threitol) according to the substrate with the lowest K _m value. The xylitol dehydrogenase was stable during purification. In contrast, the d-arabitol dehydrogenase was thermolabile and depended on divalent ions for stability and activity, preferentially Mn²⁺ and Ni²⁺. The molecular mass of the xylitol dehydrogenase was estimated to be 295 kDa by size-exclusion chromatography and 220 kDa by rate-sedimentation centrifugation. The d-arabitol dehydrogenase had a molecular mass of 105 kDa as determined by rate-sedimentation centrifugation. The specific activity of both enzymes increased about fourfold when cells were transferred from autotrophic to heterotrophic conditions regardless of whether sugars or polyols were supplied as substrates. The significance of polyol metabolism in Galdieria sulphuraria with regard to the natural habitat of the alga is discussed. Received: 15 January 1997 / Accepted: 12 February 1997     

Characterization of two new thermoacidophilic microalgae: Genome organization and comparison with Galdieria sulphuraria

Abstract Thermoacidophilic algae ( Cyanidiaceae ) constitute a taxonomic group with interesting phylogenetic and ecological implications. In this report, we have classified three thermoacidophilic microalgal isolates from Rio Tinto (Spain) using a combination of classical analysis of phenotypic features and the characterization of their electrophoretically determined karyotypes by means of pulsed-field gel electrophoresis. Using this technique, we have been able to demonstrate that thermoacidophilic algae genomes have the smallest genomes of all photosynthetic eukaryotes studied so far. In addition, we show that two of these Rio Tinto isolates may constitute new species within the genus Galdieria .     

Regulation of photosynthesis in the unicellular acidophilic red alga Galdieria sulphuraria

Extremophilic organisms are gaining increasing interest because of their unique metabolic capacities and great biotechnological potential. The unicellular acidophilic and mesothermophilic red alga Galdieria sulphuraria (074G) can grow autotrophically in light as well as heterotrophically in the dark. In this paper, the effects of externally added glucose on primary and secondary photosynthetic reactions are assessed to elucidate mixotrophic capacities of the alga. Photosynthetic O2 evolution was quantified in an open system with a constant supply of CO2 to avoid rapid volatilization of dissolved inorganic carbon at low pH levels. In the presence of glucose, O2 evolution was repressed even in illuminated cells. Ratios of variable to maximum chlorophyll fluorescence (Fv/Fm) and 77 K fluorescence spectra indicated a reduced photochemical efficiency of photosystem II. The results were corroborated by strongly reduced levels of the photosystem II reaction centre protein D1. The downregulation of primary photosynthetic reactions was accompanied by reduced levels of the Calvin Cycle enzyme ribulose-1,5-bisphosphate carboxylase/oxygenase (Rubisco). Both effects depended on functional sugar uptake and are thus initiated by intracellular rather than extracellular glucose. Following glucose depletion, photosynthetic O2 evolution of illuminated cells commenced after 15 h and Rubisco levels again reached the levels of autotrophic cells. It is concluded that true mixotrophy, involving electron transport across both photosystems, does not occur in G. sulphuraria 074G, and that heterotrophic growth is favoured over autotrophic growth if sufficient organic carbon is available.     

灵芝UDP-葡萄糖4-差向异构酶酶学性质研究及其应用

【背景】灵芝多糖是灵芝的重要活性物质之一。UDP-葡萄糖4-差向异构酶（UDP-glucose 4-epimerase,UGE,EC 5.1.3.2）是灵芝多糖合成途径中糖供体生成的重要酶,其参与了UDP-葡萄糖与UDP-半乳糖的相互转化,与多糖中半乳糖残基含量密切相关。【目的】通过对来源于灵芝的UGE基因进行异源表达,丰富灵芝多糖糖供体合成途径重要酶的酶学特性信息,深入了解灵芝多糖代谢合成途径。【方法】以灵芝菌株（Ganoderma lingzhi） CGMCC 5.26的cDNA为模板,克隆得到UGE基因GL30389,并在Escherichia coli BL21（DE3）中诱导表达,产物纯化后进行酶学性质、酶动力学、底物专一性及转化率的研究。【结果】灵芝UGE的分子量为45 kDa。最适反应pH值为6.0,在pH 7.0—9.0范围内有较好的稳定性;最适反应温度为30℃,温度在40℃时稳定性最好。Fe²⁺和Mg²⁺对UGE有激活作用。以UDP-葡萄糖为底物时,K_m为0.824 mmol/L,V_max为769.230 μmol/（L·min）,k_cat为1.333 s^—1,k_cat/K_m为1.618 L/（mmol·s）。灵芝UGE对D-葡萄糖、半乳糖醛酸及N-乙酰葡萄糖胺有催化活性。通过优化pH、温度、底物与酶的配比、添加金属离子将转化率从16.0%提升至39.4%。【结论】灵芝UGE与植物来源的UGE酶学性质较为相似,其催化效率优于大部分细菌来源的UGE。本研究丰富了灵芝多糖糖供体合成途径重要酶的酶学特性信息,有利于深入了解灵芝多糖代谢合成途径。     

Two types of ftsZ genes isolated from the unicellular primitive red alga Galdieria sulphuraria.

FtsZ plays a crucial role in bacterial cell division, and may be involved in plastid division in eukaryotes. To investigate the evolution of the dividing apparatus from prokaryotes to eukaryotes, the ftsZ genes were isolated from the unicellular primitive red alga Galdieria sulphuraria. Two ftsZ genes (GsftsZ1 and GsftsZ2) were isolated. This suggests that duplication and divergence of the ftsZ gene occurred in an early stage of plant evolution. A comparison of the FtsZs of G. sulphuraria and other organisms shows that FtsZ is highly and universally conserved among prokaryotes, primitive eukaryotic algae, and higher plants. The GsftsZ2 gene seems to contain an intron. Southern hybridization analysis of the G. sulphuraria chromosomes separated by CHEF revealed that each ftsZ gene and its flanking region may be duplicated.     

塔格糖-4-异构酶的新酶挖掘及酶学性质研究

d-塔格糖是一种己酮糖,在自然界中天然存在但含量极少,具有降血糖、抗龋齿、改善肠道菌群、促进血液循环和抗衰等作用,可广泛应用于食品、医药和化妆品行业。目前酶催化半乳糖生成塔格糖仅需一步反应,简单易行,但半乳糖较高的成本限制了这一方法的工业应用。果糖是塔格糖的同分异构体,价格低廉,来源稳定,可通过4位差向异构化一步获得塔格糖,是产塔格糖的理想底物。【目的】因此挖掘新的塔格糖-4-差向异构酶对塔格糖的工业生产具有重要意义。【方法】本文通过基因挖掘的手段发现了热袍菌(Thermotogae bacterium)来源的未知功能蛋白(命名为HCZ0)具有塔格糖-4-差向异构酶活性,进而完成了HCZ0的异源表达、纯化及酶学性质表征。【结果】确定HCZ0表观分子量约为57.9 kDa,比活力为0.9 U/mg,最适反应温度和pH值分别为70 ℃和9.0,最适金属离子为Ni²⁺,最适金属离子浓度为2 mmol/L,60、70和80 ℃半衰期分别为180、67和9 h。最适条件下,HCZ0催化200 g/L果糖在2 h内可产生28 g/L塔格糖。【结论】本研究中,HCZ0是碱性高温酶,且具有较好的热稳定性,这些特征在以后的理论研究及工业生产中具有一定的科学价值。     

Characterization of a non-thermophilic strain of the red algal genus Galdieria isolated from Soos (Czech Republic)

Volcanic areas with highly acidic solfatara soils and temperatures of up to 56?°C are inhabited by the red algal genus Galdieria. We examined three highly acidic but non-volcanic habitats in the western part of the Czech Republic for the occurrence of this red alga. In soil samples from the National Nature Reserve of Soos we found, together with Euglena mutabilis, Pseudococcomyxa simplex and species of Chlorella, a new strain of Galdieria. In contrast to all other Galdieria strains described so far, the strain from Soos exhibited a low temperature optimum for growth of about 30?°C. Other properties, such as the substrate spectrum for heterotrophic growth, ultrastructure, fatty acid composition, thermostability of enzymes and the nitrogen source, showed no obvious differences from other strains of Galdieria. Within a phylogenetic tree based on 18S rRNA sequence data, the strain from Soos occupied a position at the base of the ‘Galdieria’-branch. Our findings indicate that the genus Galdieria is not restricted to volcanic and mining areas and that strains of Galdieria are able to compete successfully with green algae in habitats like Soos.     

Accumulation of phycocyanin in heterotrophic and mixotrophic cultures of the acidophilic red alga Galdieria sulphuraria

The relationship between light intensity, nitrogen availability and pigmentation was investigated in mixotrophic and heterotrophic cultures of the unicellular red alga Galdieria sulphuraria 074G, a potential host for production of the blue pigment, phycocyanin (PC). During the exponential growth phase of batch cultures, G. sulphuraria 074G contained 2–4 mg phycocyanin per g dry weight. In carbon-limited and nitrogen-sufficient batch cultures grown in darkness, this value increased to 8–12 mg g⁻¹ dry weight during the stationary phase, whereas the phycocyanin content in nitrogen-deficient cells decreased to values below 1 mg g⁻¹ dry weight during stationary phase. Light intensities between 0 and 100 μmol photons m⁻² s⁻¹ had no influence on phycocyanin accumulation in mixotrophic cultures grown on glucose or fructose, while light stimulated phycocyanin synthesis in cultures grown on glycerol, in which the phycocyanin content in stationary phase was increased from 10 mg g⁻¹ dry weight in darkness to 20 mg g⁻¹ dry weight at a light intensity of 80 μmol photons m⁻² s⁻¹. At higher light intensities, less phycocyanin accumulated than at lower intensities, irrespective of the carbon substrate used. In carbon-limited continuous flow cultures grown on glucose or glycerol at a dilution rate of 0.63 day⁻¹, corresponding to 50% of the maximum specific growth rate, the highest steady-state phycocyanin content of 15–28 mg g⁻¹ dry weight was found at 65 μmol photons m⁻² s⁻¹. In contrast to the apparent glucose repression of light-induced PC synthesis observed in batch cultures, no glucose repression of the light stimulation was observed in continuous flow cultures because the glucose concentration in the culture supernatant always remained at limiting levels. Despite the fact that G. sulphuraria 074G contains less phycocyanin than some other microalgae and cyanobacteria, the ability of G. sulphuraria 074G to grow and synthesize phycocyanin in heterotrophic or mixotrophic cultures makes it an interesting alternative to the cyanobacterium, Spirulina platensis presently used for synthesis of phycocyanin.     

Purification and preliminary X-ray crystallographic studies of recombinant L-ribulose-5-phosphate 4-epimerase from Escherichia coli.

The araD gene from Escherichia coli, coding for L-ribulose-5-phosphate 4-epimerase, was overexpressed and the resulting enzyme was purified to homogeneity. Crystals of L-ribulose-5-phosphate 4-epimerase, obtained with 4.0 M sodium formate as precipitant, belong to space group P4212 with unit cell dimensions a = b = 107.8 A and c = 281.4 A and diffract to at least 2.2 A resolution. Density measurements of these crystals are consistent with eight subunits in the asymmetric unit.     

The gene family coding for the light-harvesting polypeptides of Photosystem I of the red alga Galdieria sulphuraria*

Recently [Marquardt et al. (2000) Gene 255: 257–265], we isolated a gene encoding a polypeptide of the light-harvesting complex of Photosystem I (LHC I) of the red alga Galdieria sulphuraria. By screening a G. sulphuraria cDNA library with a DNA probe coding for the conserved first transmembrane helix of this protein we isolated four additional genes coding for LHC I polypeptides. The deduced preproteins had calculated molecular masses of 24.6–25.6 kDa and isoelectric points of 8.09–9.82. N-terminal sequencing of a LHC I polypeptide isolated by gel electrophoresis allowed us to determine the cleavage site of the transit peptide of one of the deduced polypeptides. The mature protein has a calculated molecular mass of 20.6 kDa and an isoelectric point of 7.76. The genes were amplified from nuclear G. sulphuraria DNA by polymerase chain reaction (PCR) using oligonucleotides annealing in the regions of the start and stop codons as primers. All genomic sequences were 80–300 base pairs longer than the PCR products obtained from the respective cDNA clones, pointing to the existence of 1–5 introns per gene. The G. sulphuraria genes form a homogeneous gene family with overall pairwise amino acid identities of 46.0–56.6%. Homology to two diatom, one cryptophytic and two higher plant light-harvesting polypeptides was lower with pairwise identities of 21.1–34.1%. Only one diatom polypeptide showed a higher degree of identity of up to −39.3%. This revised version was published online in June 2006 with corrections to the Cover Date.     

纤维二糖差向异构酶在毕赤酵母中的表达及酶学性质研究

首先将来源于Caldicellulosiruptor saccharolyticus的纤维二糖差向异构酶基因CsCEm进行密码子优化,然后进行全基因合成,再将其引入到载体pPIC9K中,构建重组质粒pPIC9K-CsCEm并转化入毕赤酵母GS115,得到酵母工程菌株.经微孔板筛选、摇瓶筛选得到酶活最高的重组工程茵GS115-4-19.该菌株经甲醇诱导144 h后,摇瓶发酵液上清酶活达到0.42 U/mL.酶学性质研究结果表明:该酶的最适pH为7.5,且在pH 6.0 ～8.0范围内相对酶活都在80％以上;在pH 4～9的缓冲液中放置24 h后仍保持原酶活力的80％以上;最适温度为80℃,在60℃～80℃保温30 min后,相对酶活在80％以上.动力学研究结果表明该酶对底物乳糖的Km和Vmax分别为(120.27±9.96) mmol/L和(1.035±0.05) mmol/L/min.纤维二糖差向异构酶在毕赤酵母中的成功表达为生物酶法合成乳果糖提供了重要参考.     

Functional characterization of the plastidic phosphate translocator gene family from the thermo-acidophilic red alga Galdieria sulphuraria reveals specific adaptations of primary carbon partitioning in green plants and red algae

In chloroplasts of green plants and algae, CO₂ is assimilated into triose-phosphates (TPs); a large part of these TPs is exported to the cytosol by a TP/phosphate translocator (TPT), whereas some is stored in the plastid as starch. Plastidial phosphate translocators have evolved from transport proteins of the host endomembrane system shortly after the origin of chloroplasts by endosymbiosis. The red microalga Galdieria sulphuraria shares three conserved putative orthologous transport proteins with the distantly related seed plants and green algae. However, red algae, in contrast to green plants, store starch in their cytosol, not inside plastids. Hence, due to the lack of a plastidic starch pool, a larger share of recently assimilated CO₂ needs to be exported to the cytosol. We thus hypothesized that red algal transporters have distinct substrate specificity in comparison to their green orthologs. This hypothesis was tested by expression of the red algal genes in yeast (Saccharomyces cerevisiae) and assessment of their substrate specificities and kinetic constants. Indeed, two of the three red algal phosphate translocator candidate orthologs have clearly distinct substrate specificities when compared to their green homologs. GsTPT (for G. sulphuraria TPT) displays very narrow substrate specificity and high affinity; in contrast to green plant TPTs, 3-phosphoglyceric acid is poorly transported and thus not able to serve as a TP/3-phosphoglyceric acid redox shuttle in vivo. Apparently, the specific features of red algal primary carbon metabolism promoted the evolution of a highly efficient export system with high affinities for its substrates. The low-affinity TPT of plants maintains TP levels sufficient for starch biosynthesis inside of chloroplasts, whereas the red algal TPT is optimized for efficient export of TP from the chloroplast.     

Characterization, cloning, and evolutionary history of the chloroplast and cytosolic class I aldolases of the red alga Galdieria sulphuraria

Two fructose-1,6-bisphosphate aldolases from the acido- and thermophilic red alga Galdieria sulphuraria were purified to apparent homogeneity and N-terminally microsequenced. Both aldolases had similar biochemical properties such as Km (FBP) (5.6-5.8 microM) and molecular masses of the native enzymes (165kDa) as determined by size exclusion chromatography. The subunit size of the purified aldolases, as determined by SDS-PAGE, was 42kDa for both aldolases. The isoenzymes were not inhibited by EDTA or affected by cysteine or potassium ions, implying that they belong to the class I group of aldolases, while other red algae are known to have one class I and one class II aldolase inhibited by EDTA. cDNA clones of the cytosolic and plastidic aldolases were isolated and sequenced. The gene for the cytosolic isoenzyme contained a 303bp untranslated leader sequence, while the gene for the plastidic isoenzyme exhibited a transit sequence of 56 amino-acid residues. Both isoenzymes showed about 48% homology in the deduced amino-acid sequences. A gene tree relates both aldolases to the basis of early eukaryotic class I aldolases. The phylogenetic relationship to other aldolases, particularly to cyanobacterial class II aldolases, is discussed.     

Organization of plastid-encoded ATPase genes and flanking regions including homologues of infB and tsf in the thermophilic red alga Galdieria sulphuraria

We have cloned and sequenced the plastid ATPase operons (atp1 and atp2) and flanking regions from the unicellular red alga Galdieria sulphuraria (Cyanidium caldarium). Six genes (5 atpI, H, G, F, D and A 3) are linked in atp1 encoding ATPase subunits a, c, b, b, and , respectively. The atpF gene does not contain an intron and overlaps atpD by 1 bp. As in the genome of chloroplasts from land plants, the cluster is located downstream of rps2, but between this gene and atp1 we found the gene for the prokaryotic translation elongation factor TS. Downstream of atpA, we detected two open reading frames, one encoding a putative transport protein. The genes atpB and atpE, encoding ATPase subunits and , respectively, are linked in atp2, seperated by a 2 bp spacer. Upstream of atpB, an uninterrupted orf167 was detected which is homologous to an intron-containing open reading frame in land plant chloroplasts. This orf167 is preceded on the opposite DNA strand by a homologue to initiation factor 2 in prokaryotes. The arrangement of atp1 and atp2 is the same as observed in the multicellular red alga Antithamnion sp. indicatiing a conserved genome arrangement in the red algal plastid genome. Differences compared to green chloroplast genomes suggest a large phylogenetic distance between red algae and green plants, while similarities in arrangement and sequence to chromophytic ATPase operons support a red algal origin of chlorophyll a/c-containing plastids or alternatively point to a common prokaryotic endosymbiont.