On the Nature of nontypable Haemophilus influenzae

193 Haemophilus cultures, including 71 nontypable H. influenzae isolates, were examined with respect to phage HP1 sensitivity, lysogeny for this and for other phages and for excretion of bacteriocins. Fifty of the 71 nontypable cultures were sensitive to phage HP1 but only three produced plaques. The other 47 isolates were thus probably not non-encapsulated derivatives of H. influenzae serotypes a, b, d, and e, which have discrete and characteristic phage HP1 restriction and modification systems, or serotype c which appears to be restriction negative. They could be derivatives of serotype f which does not give plaques with phage HP1. The nontypable three cultures that plated phage HP1 efficiently could be non-encapsulated serotype c derivatives. Fourteen of the phage HP1 insentitive nontypable cultures were found to be defectively lysogenic for this phage. Five of these were genetically transformed to wild type lysogens. Their phage produced plaques efficiently only on Rc strains and on a restriction-negative mutant of serotype d. These lysogenic nontypable isolates are thus modification (and restriction) negative and they are thus probably not nonencapsulated derivatives of serotypes a, b, d, e, or f. Fifty three of 56 serotype b cultures were found to excrete a bacteriocin, to which all other nonproducing Haemophilus cultures were more or less sensitive. The three restriction-negative nontypable H. influenzae cultures also excreted this bacteriocin but the other cultures listed did not do this. The tentative conclusion from this study is that nontypable H. influenzae isolates are probably not derivatives of the six known encapsulated strains.     

New mosquitocidal strains from Ghana belonging to serotypes H3, H6 and H48 of Bacillus sphaericus

Summary Seven bacterial isolates from Ghana, IAB 763, IAB 769-1, IAB 769-2, IAB 774, IAB 871, IAB 872, IAB 881, are characterized as Bacillus sphaericus strains highly toxic to mosquito larvae. Most of them belong to serotype H6, except for IAB 881 and IAB 872, which belong pesrespectively to serotypes H3 and H48. Phenotypic characters of all these strains are identical to those of strains 2362 (serotype H5) and IAB 59 (serotype H6), used for comparison. Five strains out of seven produce final whole cultures and alkali-solubilized toxins, which have very high potency against Culex pipiens larvae. Their larvicidal power is similar to that of strains 2362 and IAB 59. By using polyclonal antibodies raised against 42- and 56-kDa toxic polypeptides of strain 2362, Western-blot of the alkali-solubilized toxins of these new five strains showed homologies. It is the first time that strains belonging to serotypes H3 and H48 have been found pathogenic to mosquito larvae, thus increasing to eight the number of toxic serotypes of B. sphaericus. Correspondence to: I. Thiery     

Cloning and analysis of the glucosyl transferase gene encoding type I antigen in Shigella flexneri

The O-antigen of most Shigella flexneri serotypes contains an identical tetrasaccharide repeating unit. Apart from serotype Y, the O-antigen is modified by addition of a glucosyl and/or O-acetyl residue to a specific position in the O-unit. In this study the glucosyl transferase gene from a serotype 1a has been cloned and identified. The bacteriophage SfV integrase (int) gene was used to probe a S. flexneri Y53 (serotype 1a) cosmid library and 18 unique clones were identified. Southern hybridisation of these clones indicated two unlinked regions of the chromosome contained the int homologue. When expressed in a live candidate vaccine strain of S. flexneri serotype Y (SFL124), clones with one region produced type I antigen, whereas clones containing the other region produced mainly type Y antigen. One of the cosmid clones positive for type I antigen by agglutination and Western blotting was selected for further study. Genes involved in O-antigen glucosyl modification were mapped on a 5.8 kb fragment and subclones were produced which fully or partially expressed the type I antigen, depending on the extent of the clone. Fully and partially expressing clones may be useful vaccine candidate strains for protection against disease caused by two serotypes of S. flexneri.     

Sequence Diversity of Bacillus thuringiensis Flagellin (H Antigen) Protein at the Intra-H Serotype Level

In Bacillus thuringiensis, the hag gene encodes flagellin, the protein responsible for eliciting the immunological reaction in H serotyping. Specific flagellin amino acid sequences have been correlated to specific B. thuringiensis H serotypes, H1 to H67. Ten H serotypes, however, contain three or more antigenic subfactors, labeled a, b, c, d, or e, and have been subdivided into 23 serovars. In the present study, we set out to analyze the sequence diversity of flagellins among serovars from the same H serotypes. We studied the hag genes in 39 B. thuringiensis strains representing the 23 serovars from the 10 H serotypes mentioned above. A serovar and a biovar from an 11th H serotype were also included. The hag genes were amplified and cloned and their nucleotide sequences were determined and translated into amino acid sequences, or the sequences were retrieved directly from GenBank when available. Strains of the H3 serotype contained two or three copies of the fla gene, an ortholog of the hag gene. Strains of the H6 serotype contained three copies. Strains of all other H serotypes each contained a single copy of the hag gene. Alignments of amino acid sequences from all copies in all strains of the H3 serotype revealed short signature sequences, GGAG and SGG, GPDPDDAVKNLT, and DITTTK, that appeared to be specific to the H3c, H3d, and H3e antigenic subfactors, respectively. Similar short signature sequences, GDIT, AFIK, TSAGKA, and SAPSKG, were revealed for H8b, H8c, H20b, and H20c, respectively. Amino acid sequences in the flagellin central variable region were highly conserved among serovars of the H3, H5, H11, and H20 serotypes and much more divergent among serovars of the H4, H10, H18, H24, and H28 serotypes. Two bootstrapped neighbor-joining trees were respectively generated from the alignments of the amino acid sequences translated from all copies of the hag genes in the B. thuringiensis strains of the H3 and H6 serotypes. Sequence identities and relationships were revealed. A third bootstrapped neighbor-joining tree was generated, this one from the alignment of the flagellin amino acid sequences from all the B. thuringiensis strains in the study. Eight clusters, I to VIII, were revealed. Although most clusters contained strains and serovars from the same H serotype, clusters VII and VIII contained serovars from different H serotypes.     

Clonal relationships among Escherichia coli serogroup 06 isolates from human and animal infections

The clonal relationship of thirty E. coli strains of 0 antigen serotype 06 isolated from human, dog, pig or cow infections were investigated. Two main clones with serotypes 06 : H1 or 06 : H31, H- were identified. Isolates from humans, dogs, pigs and cows were found in both clones, indicating that animals are a possible source for human extraintestinal Escherichia coli strains. Two human ETEC (06 : H16) and two pig isolates (06 : H10) were not related to the 06 : H1 or 06 : H31, H- E. coli clones.     

Genomic Diversity and Virulence Profiles of Historical Escherichia coli O157 Strains Isolated from Clinical and Environmental Sources

Escherichia coli O157:H7 is, to date, the major E. coli serotype causing food-borne human disease worldwide. Strains of O157 with other H antigens also have been recovered. We analyzed a collection of historic O157 strains (n = 400) isolated in the late 1980s to early 1990s in the United States. Strains were predominantly serotype O157:H7 (55%), and various O157:non-H7 (41%) serotypes were not previously reported regarding their pathogenic potential. Although lacking Shiga toxin (stx) and eae genes, serotypes O157:H1, O157:H2, O157:H11, O157:H42, and O157:H43 carried several virulence factors (iha, terD, and hlyA) also found in virulent serotype E. coli O157:H7. Pulsed-field gel electrophoresis (PFGE) showed the O157 serogroup was diverse, with strains with the same H type clustering together closely. Among non-H7 isolates, serotype O157:H43 was highly prevalent (65%) and carried important enterohemorrhagic E. coli (EHEC) virulence markers (iha, terD, hlyA, and espP). Isolates from two particular H types, H2 and H11, among the most commonly found non-O157 EHEC serotypes (O26:H11, O111:H11, O103:H2/H11, and O45:H2), unexpectedly clustered more closely with O157:H7 than other H types and carried several virulence genes. This suggests an early divergence of the O157 serogroup to clades with different pathogenic potentials. The appearance of important EHEC virulence markers in closely related H types suggests their virulence potential and suggests further monitoring of those serotypes not implicated in severe illness thus far.     

Contribution of capsular and clonal types and beta-lactam resistance to the severity of experimental pneumococcal meningitis

We used a rabbit model to assess the effects of capsular serotype, genetic background and beta-lactam resistance on the course and severity of experimental meningitis. Meningitis was induced by five pneumococcal strains belonging to five different clones with known invasive potential: two serotype 3 strains (ST260(3) and Netherlands(3)-31 clones) and three serotype 23F strains with different beta-lactam susceptibility patterns (Spain(23F)-1 clone, Tennessee(23F)-4 clone and a double locus variant of the Tennessee(23F)-4 clone). Major differences in secondary bacteremia and mortality rates were observed between serotypes 3 and 23F, as were divergences in the CSF lactate, protein and lipoteichoic-teichoic acid concentrations. Minor differences in the CSF-induced inflammatory response were found among strains belonging to the same serotype. Our results suggest that capsular serotype might be the main factor determining the course and severity of pneumococcal meningitis and genetic background contributes to a lesser extent. The acquisition of beta-lactam resistance does not reduce the virulence of the invasive clones. Since five strains belonging to two serotypes were studied, our findings have to be confirmed with other pneumococcal serotypes.     

Immunochemical study of nutritionally variant streptococci

Nutritionally variant streptococci (NVS) have been characterized by their growth as satellite colonies around colonies of staphylococci or several other gram-positive or gram-negative bacterial strains. The majority of the NVS strains were isolated from patients with subacute bacterial endocarditis. Organisms identified as NVS were subdivided into three serotypes by rocket-line electrophoresis and hemagglutination inhibition assays. Ninety-nine of 103 strains expressed one or more of the three serotype antigens; however, a group antigen was not demonstrated in the various extracts of these streptococci. Surface protein studies confirmed the NVS differentiation into serotypes. Serotype I organisms expressed surface protein(s) specific for the serotype, whereas the serotype II and III NVS demonstrated common protein(s) on their surface. Furthermore, SDS extraction released a greater amount of radioiodinatable surface protein from serotypes I and III bacteria than serotype II. Finally, there was no correlation between the serotype or the disease of the patients from which the NVS strains were isolated.     

Competitive Fitness of Listeria monocytogenes Serotype 1/2a and 4b Strains in Mixed Cultures with and without Food in the U.S. Food and Drug Administration Enrichment Protocol

Thirteen different serotypes of the food-borne pathogen Listeria monocytogenes have been described. Serotype 4b strains are most often associated with illness, and serotype 1/2a strains are most often isolated from foods and processing plants. Different abilities to respond to stresses have been described for serotype 4b and 1/2a strains. One of the common enrichment protocols used to test foods for the presence L. monocytogenes is described in the U.S. Food and Drug Administration (FDA) Bacterial Analytical Manual (BAM). We compared three strains of L. monocytogenes serotype 4b and five strains of serotype 1/2a in direct competition with each other in two-strain mixed cultures by using the FDA BAM enrichment protocol, which includes both enrichment broth and selective agar, with and without added food to mimic the conditions that occur during attempts to isolate Listeria species from contaminated foods. Using a colony immunoblot procedure and analyzing over 112,000 colonies, we observed differences in strain fitness, but these differences were not attributable to serotype or genetic lineage.     

Survey on the Incidence of Yersinia enterocolitica Infection in Canada

Data pertaining to 278 cultures of Yersinia enterocolitica isolated in Canada are summarized in this paper. Of this amount, 256 were isolated from humans, whereas 22 were of nonhuman sources. The typing of these cultures is presented together with their geographical location. Y. enterocolitica serotype O:3 biotype 4, phage type 9b, was practically the only serotype present in the Province of Quebec. This serotype O:3 was also predominant in Ontario, followed by serotypes O:5,27 and O:6,30; other serotypes were seldom isolated. In the central and western areas of Canada, Y. enterocolitica was occasionally isolated; the strains were indole-positive, serotypes O:5,27, O:8, and O:4,32.     

Two new subspecies of Bacillus thuringiensis isolated in Japan: Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kumamotoensis (serotype 18) and Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tochigiensis (serotype 19)

Bacteriological and serological characteristics of three Bacillus thuringiensis isolates obtained in Japan were investigated. They formed typical rhomboidal parasporal inclusions but flagellar (H) antigens of these isolates were different from those of the known 17 H serotypes of B. thuringiensis. The three isolates were divided into two new serotypes (serotypes 18 and 19). The serotype 18 isolate (3–71) produced thermostable exotoxin and the inclusions of this isolate were toxic to larvae of the silkworm, Bombyx mori, but nontoxic to larvae of the mosquito, Aedes aegypti. The other isolate (119-72) belonging to serotype 18 produced inclusions nontoxic to larvae of B. mori and A. aegypti and did not produce thermostable exotoxin. However, other bacteriological properties of the isolate 119-72 were similar to those of the isolate 3–71. The serotype 19 isolate (117-72) produced inclusions nontoxic to larvae of B. mori and A. aegypti and did not produce thermostable exotoxin. Acid production from saccharose and the production of brownish purple pigment were observed in the two serotype 18 isolates, while neither of them was observed in the serotype 19 isolate. In other 29 biochemical properties tested, there was no difference among the three isolates. Based on these characteristics, the following two subspecies names are proposed: Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. kumamotoensis (serotype 18) for the type strain 3–71 and Bacillus thuringiensis subsp. tochigiensis (serotype 19) for the type strain 117-72.     

Application of Fluorescent Amplified Fragment Length Polymorphism for Comparison of Human and Animal Isolates of Yersinia enterocolitica

An amplified fragment length polymorphism (AFLP) method, developed to genotype Yersinia enterocolitica, has been used to investigate 70 representative strains isolated from humans, pigs, sheep, and cattle in the United Kingdom. AFLP primarily distinguished Y. enterocolitica strains according to their biotype, with strains dividing into two distinct clusters: cluster A, comprising largely the putatively pathogenic biotypes (BT2 to -4), and cluster B, comprising the putatively nonpathogenic biotype 1A strains and a single BT1B isolate. Within these two clusters, subclusters formed largely on the basis of serotype. However, AFLP profiles also allowed differentiation of strains within these serotype-related subclusters, indicating the high discriminatory power of the technique for Y. enterocolitica. Investigation of the relationship between strain AFLP profile and host confirmed that pigs are, and provides further proof that sheep may be, potential sources of human infection with putatively pathogenic strains. However, the results suggest that some strains causing human disease do not come from veterinary sources identifiable at this time. The distribution of some BT1A isolates within cluster A raises questions about the relationship between virulence potential and biotype.     

Potential of Three-Way Randomly Amplified Polymorphic DNA Analysis as a Typing Method for Twelve Salmonella Serotypes

The potential of a three-way randomly amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD) procedure (RAPD typing) for typing Salmonella enterica strains assigned to 12 serotypes was analyzed. The series of organisms used included 235 strains (326 isolates) collected mainly from clinical samples in the Principality of Asturias and 9 reference strains. RAPD typing was performed directly with broth cultures of bacteria by using three selected primers and optimized PCR conditions. The profiles obtained with the three primers were used to define RAPD types and to evaluate the procedure as a typing method at the species and serotype levels. The typeability was 100%; the reproducibility and in vitro stability could be considered good. The concordance of RAPD typing methods with serotyping methods was 100%, but some profiles obtained with two of the three primers were obtained with strains assigned to different serotypes. The discrimination index (DI) within the series of organisms was 0.94, and the DI within serotypes Typhimurium, Enteritidis, and Virchow were 0.72, 0.52, and 0.66, respectively. Within these serotypes the most common RAPD types were differentiated into phage types and vice versa; combining the types identified by the two procedures (RAPD typing and phage typing) resulted in further discrimination (DI, 0.96, 0.74, and 0.87, respectively). The efficiency, rapidity, and flexibility of the RAPD typing method support the conclusion that it can be used as a tool for identifying Salmonella organisms and as a typing method that is complementary to serotyping and phage typing methods.     

Serological Examination of Some Strains That Are in the Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare-scrofulaceum Complex But Do Not Belong to Schaefer's Serotypes

One hundred strains belonging to the Mycobacterium avium-intracellulare-scrofulaceum (MAIS) complex but not agglutinating with antisera type-specific for Schaefer''s 23 MAIS serotypes were examined using antisera against seven other such strains. Four of the 100 strains were found to be of the same serotype as one of the 7 against which antisera were prepared; 4 other strains were of the same serotype as another of those against which antisera were prepared. Although the strains against which antisera were prepared were serologically distinct from each other, no strains serologically identical to 5 of them were found. This suggests that numerous serotypes might have to be defined if strains such as those examined are to be assigned to their respective serotypes.     

N-acetyl-L-galactosaminuronic acid as an epitope common to the O-polysaccharides of Pseudomonas aeruginosa serotype A and H (Homma) recognized by a protective human monoclonal antibody.

We have established a human--mouse heterohybridoma cell line producing a human monoclonal antibody TS-3G2 (IgG gamma 1, K). This monoclonal antibody specifically bound to O-polysaccharides belonging to plural Pseudomonas aeruginosa Homma serotypes, A and H, in contrast to serotype-specific monoclonal antibody which exclusively bound to strains belonging to a single specific serotype. The binding affinity for serotype A strains was higher than that for serotype H strains. Competitive enzyme immunoassay experiments with O-polysaccharide preparations derived from IID 1001, NCTC 8505 (serotype A) and IID 1009 (serotype H) and their derivatives demonstrated that the N-acetyl-L-galactosaminuronic acid residue in O-polysaccharide was essentially involved in the epitope for TS-3G2. Furthermore, a 6-deoxy-hexosamine residue neighboring the reducing terminal of N-acetyl-L-galactosaminuronic acid residues was also concerned with the epitope to some extent. In the experimental infection model of normal mice, the monoclonal antibody TS-3G2 showed a protective activity against both strains of serotype A and H.     

Phenotypic and Genotypic Characterization of Biofilm Forming Capabilities in Non-O157 Shiga Toxin-Producing Escherichia coli Strains

The biofilm life style helps bacteria resist oxidative stress, desiccation, antibiotic treatment, and starvation. Biofilm formation involves a complex regulatory gene network controlled by various environmental signals. It was previously shown that prophage insertions in mlrA and heterogeneous mutations in rpoS constituted major obstacles limiting biofilm formation and the expression of extracellular curli fibers in strains of Escherichia coli serotype O157:H7. The purpose of this study was to test strains from other important serotypes of Shiga toxin-producing E. coli (STEC) (O26, O45, O103, O111, O113, O121, and O145) for similar regulatory restrictions. In a small but diverse collection of biofilm-forming and non-forming strains, mlrA prophage insertions were identified in only 4 of the 19 strains (serotypes O103, O113, and O145). Only the STEC O103 and O113 strains could be complemented by a trans-copy of mlrA to restore curli production and Congo red (CR) dye affinity. RpoS mutations were found in 5 strains (4 serotypes), each with low CR affinity, and the defects were moderately restored by a wild-type copy of rpoS in 2 of the 3 strains attempted. Fourteen strains in this study showed no or weak biofilm formation, of which 9 could be explained by prophage insertions or rpoS mutations. However, each of the remaining five biofilm-deficient strains, as well as the two O145 strains that could not be complemented by mlrA, showed complete or nearly complete lack of motility. This study indicates that mlrA prophage insertions and rpoS mutations do limit biofilm and curli expression in the non-serotype O157:H7 STEC but prophage insertions may not be as common as in serotype O157:H7 strains. The results also suggest that lack of motility provides a third major factor limiting biofilm formation in the non-O157:H7 STEC. Understanding biofilm regulatory mechanisms will prove beneficial in reducing pathogen survival and enhancing food safety.     

Production of heat-stable exotoxin by Bacillus thuringiensis and related bacteria

Heat-stable exotoxin production by 740 strains of Bacillus thuringiensis and related bacteria was investigated using the housefly, Musca domestica, from the following viewpoints: (1) the relation-ship between B. thuringiensis flagellar (H) serotypes and exotoxin production and (2) the exotoxin production by Bacillus species other than B. thuringiensis. Of 437 isolates belonging to 11 serotypes of B. thuringiensis which had been confirmed to produce parasporal inclusions, 35 isolates belonging to serotypes 1, 3a:3b, 4a:4c, and 10 produced heat-stable exotoxin. Exotoxin was not detected in the isolates of serotypes 3a, 4a:4b, 5a:5b, 5a:5c, 6, 7, and 8a:8b. No heat-stable exotoxin was demonstrated in 28 acrystalliferous isolates which possessed H antigens of B. thuringiensis serotypes 1, 3a, 4a:4b, 4a:4c, 5a:5c, 6, 7, 10, 11a:11c, and 12. A total of 270 B. cereus isolates which did not possess B. thuringiensis H antigen were examined and three isolates were found to produce heat-stable exotoxin. No heat-stable exotoxin was produced by B. subtilis (two strains), B. natto (one strain), and B. megaterium (two strains). These results indicate that the heat-stable exotoxin production in B. thuringiensis is a strain-specific property rather than a serotype(subspecies)-specific property.     

Biofilm formation,antibiotic susceptibility and RAPD genotypes in <Emphasis Type="Italic">Pseudomonas aeruginosa</Emphasis> clinical strains isolated from single centre intensive care unit patients

The aim of this study was to analyse genotypes, antimicrobial susceptibility patterns and serotypes in Pseudomonas aeruginosa clinical strains, including the clonal dissemination of particular strains throughout various intensive care units in one medical centre. Using random amplified polymorphic DNA (RAPD–PCR) and P. aeruginosa antisera, 22 different genotypes and 8 serotypes were defined among 103 isolates from 48 patients. No direct association between P. aeruginosa strain genotypes and serotypes was observed. RAPD typing in strains with the same serotype revealed different genotypes and, on the contrary, most strains with a different serotype displayed the same amplification pattern. The resulting banding patterns showed a high degree of genetic heterogeneity among all isolates from the patients examined, suggesting a non-clonal relationship between isolates from these patients. A higher degree of antibiotic resistance and stronger biofilm production in common genotypes compared to rare ones and genetic homogeneity of the most resistant strains indicated the role of antibiotic pressure in acquiring resistant and more virulent strains in our hospital. In conclusion, genetic characterisation of P. aeruginosa strains using RAPD method was shown to be more accurate in epidemiological analyses than phenotyping.     

Identification and Characterization of a Novel Shigella flexneri Serotype Yv in China

Shigella flexneri is the major cause of bacterial shigellosis in developing countries. S. flexneri is divided into at least 19 serotypes, the majority of which are modifications of the same basic O-antigen by glucosylation and/or O-acetylation of its sugar residues by phage encoded serotype-converting genes. Recently, a plasmid encoded phosphoethanolamine (PEtN) modification of the O-antigen has been reported, which is responsible for the presence of the MASF IV-1 determinant and results in conversion of traditional serotypes X, 4a and Y to novel serotypes Xv, 4av and Yv, respectively. In this study, we characterized 19 serotype Yv strains isolated in China. A variant of the O-antigen phosphoethanolamine transferase gene opt (formerly called lpt-O) carried by a pSFxv_2-like plasmid was found in serotype Yv strains, which specifies the phosphorylation pattern on the O-antigen of this serotype. For the majority of the O-antigen units, the PEtN modification occurs on Rha^III, while for a minority, modifications occur on both Rha^II and Rha^III. Serotype-specific gene detection and PFGE analysis suggested that these serotype Yv isolates were originated from serotypes Y, Xv and 2a by acquisition of an opt-carrying plasmid and/or inactivation of serotype-specific gene gtrII or gtrX. These data, combined with those of serotypes Xv and 4av reported earlier, demonstrate that the plasmid-encoded PEtN modification is an important serotype conversion mechanism in S. flexneri, in addition to glucosylation and O-acetylation.     

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli O171:H25 strain isolated from a patient with haemolytic uraemic syndrome

Shiga toxin-producing Escherichia coli (STEC) strains of O157:H7 serotype are a predominant cause of haemolytic uraemic syndrome (HUS) worldwide, but strains of non-O157 serotypes can also be associated with serious disease. Some of them are associated with outbreaks of HUS, others with sporadic cases of HUS, and some with diarrhoea but not with outbreaks or HUS. A large number of STEC serotypes isolated from ruminants and foods have never been associated with human disease. In this study we characterize a STEC strain belonging to serotype O171:H25 that is responsible for a case of HUS. This strain has a single Shiga toxin gene encoding Stx2 toxin, and hlyA gene, but is eae-negative.