Flight physiology of migrating Urania fulgens (Uraniidae) moths: kinematics and aerodynamics of natural free flight

Summary Air speeds and wing kinematics were determined for the Neotropical moth Urania fulgens in natural migratory flight over Lake Gatun, Republic of Panama. Morphological parameters are presented for the same insects filmed in free flight. A quasi-steady aerodynamic analysis was used to show that unsteady mechanisms of lift generation are probably not necessary to produce the forces necessary for fast forward flight. Mechanical power requirements of forward flight were estimated from the biomechanical and morphological data. Over an airspeed range of 1.5 to 4.5 m/s, the mechanical power required to fly is predicted to increase dramatically with forward speed. A comparison of estimated metabolic rates with endogenous lipid reserves suggests that U. fulgens feeds extensively on flower nectar during migration from Central into South America.     

Ultrasound production by genital stridulation in Syntonarcha iriastis (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae): long-distance signalling by male moths?

Males of the pyralid moth, Syntonarcha iriastis Meyrick, perch on vegetation at the tops of trees and bushes and produce ultrasound while their wings are spread and while sclerites at the end of the abdomen are spread to expose the genitalia. Exposing the genitalia appears to engage the sound-producing mechanism; the male genitalia and eighth abdominal sternite of this species are greatly modified and include a file and scraper and possible resonating areas. Sounds produced are consistent between individuals and comprise pulses which are narrow in frequency range, the first pulse being at about 42 kHz and two following pulses at about 57 kHz. The signal is detectable with an ultrasound 'bat' detector from 20 m. Two tettigoniid species (Orthoptera) at the same site produced ultrasonic calls of similar frequencies at the same times as the moth; differences in time-amplitude patterns could be used by orienting moths to recognize conspecifics. Signalling by male S. iriastis is compared with that of other pyralid species in which females are attracted to signalling males. The behaviour of S. iriastis males differs from that of other pyralids in that they do not signal in groups or from a resource attractive to females, and do not possess glands known to produce a 'calling' pheromone. It is suggested, because of these differences, that sound production in this species does not function at close range, as argued for the wax moth Achroia grisella (Fabricius), but instead as a long-distance calling signal.     

Little-known accessory glands in female Zygaena moths (Lepidoptera, Zygaenidae)

In the female genital system of Zygaena moths, an additional pair of accessory glands is present besides the Y-shaped sebaceous gland. The term 'Petersen's glands' is proposed for these organs. Anatomy, histology, histochemistry and cytology of Petersen's glands of Zygaena trifolii are described. The sac-like glands, situated in the extreme dorsocaudal part of the abdomen, can be divided into a purely secretory part consisting of acini with large pear-shaped gland cells and a reservoir part with combined secretory and storage function. The secretory cells of the acini are penetrated by long curved ductules or secretory end apparatuses having feltwork consisting of very fine filaments. The cytoplasm is characterized by abundance of smooth tubular endoplasmic reticulum (ATER) and the presence of peroxisomes. This cytoplasmic organization is in accordance with the chemical composition of the sticky secretion, which evidently consists completely of lipids. The ultrastructure of the epithelium lining the reservoir of the glands has both traits of secretory and of transporting epithelia. Besides contributing to the secretion, it may be involved in absorption of residual aqueous phase from the contents of the reservoir.     

水生鳞翅类——螟蛾科水螟亚科

从成虫、卵、幼虫、蛹及生物学等方面介绍了鳞翅目的主要水生类群———螟蛾科水螟亚科Nymphulinae的主要特征及其幼虫的主要生活类型。水螟幼虫的生活型可分为Nymphula型、Parapoynx型、Potamomusa型、Eoophyla型和Nymphicula型。各生活型的主要类群及生活特征也予以说明。目的是为了使读者对该类群有正确的认识,以引起人们的重视。     

Encounters between adult spined assassin bugs,Sinea diadema (F.) (Hemiptera: Reduviidae): The occurrence and consequences of stridulation

The sequence of events leading to the resolution of agonistic interactions between adult femaleSinea diadema (F.) (Hemiptera: Reduviidae) is described. Contact between these predatory bugs resulted in a series of defensive and offensive actions, including stereotypical posturing and striking movements of the forelegs. Although these encounters usually escalated in intensity and frequency of contact, they rarely resulted in injury or cannibalism. Instead, one individual retreated from the perch. The original resident on the perch retreated in 70% of the encounters. Stridulation was observed during 33% of the encounters. Stridulating individuals retreated more often than their nonstridulating opponents, indicating that stridulation may be a startle mechanism employed by temporarily disadvantaged individuals to escape from encounters. These encounters were conflicts in which the participants are both potential predators and possible prey. The combinations of posturing, striking, and stridulation that occurred during encounters may have provided each bug with information concerning the identity and relative fitness of its opponent. If an individual is fit, it may be advantageous for it to probe the defensive capabilities of its opponent, since its own risk is low, and a less fit opponent could be killed and eaten.     

The fossil record and taphonomy of butterflies and moths (Insecta,Lepidoptera): implications for evolutionary diversity and divergence-time estimates

Background

It is conventionally accepted that the lepidopteran fossil record is significantly incomplete when compared to the fossil records of other, very diverse, extant insect orders. Such an assumption, however, has been based on cumulative diversity data rather than using alternative statistical approaches from actual specimen counts.

Results

We reviewed documented specimens of the lepidopteran fossil record, currently consisting of 4,593 known specimens that are comprised of 4,262 body fossils and 331 trace fossils. The temporal distribution of the lepidopteran fossil record shows significant bias towards the late Paleocene to middle Eocene time interval. Lepidopteran fossils also record major shifts in preservational style and number of represented localities at the Mesozoic stage and Cenozoic epoch level of temporal resolution. Only 985 of the total known fossil specimens (21.4%) were assigned to 23 of the 40 extant lepidopteran superfamilies. Absolute numbers and proportions of preservation types for identified fossils varied significantly across superfamilies. The secular increase of lepidopteran family-level diversity through geologic time significantly deviates from the general pattern of other hyperdiverse, ordinal-level lineages.

Conclusion

Our statistical analyses of the lepidopteran fossil record show extreme biases in preservation type, age, and taxonomic composition. We highlight the scarcity of identified lepidopteran fossils and provide a correspondence between the latest lepidopteran divergence-time estimates and relevant fossil occurrences at the superfamily level. These findings provide caution in interpreting the lepidopteran fossil record through the modeling of evolutionary diversification and in determination of divergence time estimates.

Electronic supplementary material

The online version of this article (doi:10.1186/s12862-015-0290-8) contains supplementary material, which is available to authorized users.     

The complete mitochondrial genome of Eterusia aedea (Lepidoptera,Zygaenidae) and comparison with other zygaenid moths

Zygaenidae comprises >1036 species, including many folivorous pests in agriculture. In the present study, the complete mitochondrial genome (mitogenome) of a major pest of tea trees, Eterusia aedea was determined. The 15,196-bp circular genome contained the common set of 37 mitochondrial genes (including 13 protein-coding genes, two rRNA genes, and 22 tRNA genes) and exhibited the similar genomic features to reported Zygaenidae mitogenome. Comparative analyses of Zygaenidae mitogenomes showed a typical evolutionary trend of lepidopteran mitogenomes. In addition, we also investigated the gene order of lepidopteran mitogenomes and proposed that the novel gene order trnA-trnR-trnN-trnE-trnS-trnF from Zygaenidae and Gelechiidae and most other gene rearrangements of this tRNA cluster evolved independently. Finally, the mitogenomic phylogeny of Lepidoptera was reconstructed based on multiple mitochondrial datasets. And all the phylogenetic results revealed the sister relationships of Cossoidea and Zygaenoidea with both BI and ML methods, which is the first stable mitogenomic evidence for this clade.     

Larval diet affects number of femoral 'brush' scales in male Helicoverpa punctigera moths (Lepidoptera: Noctuidae)

Males of Helicoverpa punctigera (Wallengren) show considerable variation in the number of femoral scales on the prothoracic legs. Such intraspecific variation in adult morphology could indicate the presence of undetected sibling species, or it may be related to larval diet. Helicoverpa punctigera is polyphagous, and different host plant species are likely to represent diets of different quality. Femoral lengths and the numbers of femoral scales on the prothoracic legs were therefore determined from: (i) individuals that had been collected as larvae from various host species in the field; and (ii) individuals that had been laboratory-reared, in split-family tests, on different diets, namely cotton, lucerne, sowthistle and artificial diet. Host plant species (and therefore presumably diet quality) influenced femoral length of H. punctigera males and, perhaps in conjunction with this, the number of femoral scales on the fore leg. The rearing experiment indicated, in addition, that the effect of host plant quality varies with larval stage, and that the pattern of this variation across the immature stages is dependent on host plant species. The recorded variation in the morphology of field-collected H. punctigera males is therefore most readily explained as a consequence of different individuals developing (at least for most of their larval life) on different host plant species, with diet quality varying significantly with species. The relevance of these results for insect developmental studies and evolutionary interpretations of host relationships is outlined.     

New record genus Thylacosceloides Sinev (Lepidoptera:Stathmopodidae) in China

The genus Thylacosceloides Sinev, 1988 is recorded for the first time in China, with T. miniata Sinev, 1988 described as new to this country. Images of adult, venation and genitalia are provided.     

Musculature of the male terminalia in geometrid moths of the subfamily Larentiinae (Lepidoptera,Geometridae)

The morphology of the male terminalia of 16 species belonging to 12 tribes of Larentiinae was studied; for 12 species and 4 tribes it was done for the first time. No clear diagnosis of Larentiinae based on the features of the male genital musculature can be given since the apomorphic position of M1, M4, and M7 muscles may originate independently in different tribes. The primitive Larentiinae retain the pattern of genital musculature plesiomorphic for Geometridae. Muscles M11 (Melanthiini: Anticollix sparsata) and M22 (Asthenini: Euchoeca nebulata and Hydrelia flammeolaria) are described for the first time for the family Geometridae.     

New record of the tropical swallowtail moth Lyssa zampa (Butler) (Lepidoptera: Uraniidae) from mainland Japan

The tropical swallowtail moth Lyssa zampa (Butler) (Lepidoptera: Uraniidae) was recorded for the first time from mainland Japan. A male specimen of this species was captured in Amakusa, western Kyushu, on the night of 19 May 2006. An analysis of typhoon data suggests that this individual is likely to have reached the western coast of Kyushu from the Philippines, being transported over a distance of approximately 3000 km by typhoon no. 1 of 2006.     

Comparative study of courtship in twelve phycitine moths (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae)

The courtship behavior of 12 phycitine moths (Lepidoptera: Pyralidae) was studied using frame-by-frame analysis of video recordings. Behavioral transitions during courtship were quantified for selected species and kinematic diagrams of courtship sequences were constructed. Interspecific similarities in courtship behaviors were measured by calculating Euclidean distances between species based on 12 courtship characters and by clustering species according to UPGMA (unweighted pair-group method using arithmetic averages). The resulting phenogram revealed two major behavioral patterns in courtship: (1) interactive and (2) simple. The former was characterized by a complex sequence in which, typically, a male approached a pheromoneemitting female, engaged in a head- to- head posture with the female, and then brought his abdomen over his head and struck the female on the head and thorax. This action brought male abdominal scent structures into close proximity with the female antennae. The male then attempted copulation from the head- to- head position by a dorsolateral thrust of the abdomen toward the female genitalia. Males of these species possessed scent structures located either on the eighth abdominal segment, or in a costal fold of the forewing, or both. Courtship in the second group was much more prosaic. After locating the female by response to her sex pheromone, the male simply attempted copulation by lateral abdominal thrusts under the female wing, without behavioral embellishments. Males of species exhibiting simple courtship had either no scent structures or structures that appeared vestigial. The grouping of species based on courtship characters was poorly correlated with taxonomic relationships, suggesting that the selective pressures governing the evolution and maintenance of courtship and male pheromones were distinct from those involved in the evolution of other morphological characters. While we argue that the primary force molding the evolution of courtship was an adaptive response to interspecific mating mistakes, we do not believe that isolation is brought about by the sequence of courtship behaviors themselves, due to the striking similarity in the sequence across several diverse species. Rather, these behaviors act to deliver more efficiently the male pheromonal message, which mayhave evolved for reproductive isolation.     

眼蝶科一新种记述（鳞翅目）

暗色的种类,斑纹简单明显。翅正面谈揭色;外缘毛褐色,前翅亚项区及后缘Cu2与a室色较深;前翅正中有一孤立的斜心脏形黑色大斑,斑在Cu脉上,一半在中室端部,一半在中室下方。翅反面满布褐色霜雾状坟;外缘深揭色;前翅正中的黑斑隐约可见。     

Bat-deafness in day-flying moths (Lepidoptera, Notodontidae, Dioptinae)

Assuming that bat-detection is the primary function of moth ears, the ears of moths that are no longer exposed to bats should be deaf to echolocation call frequencies. To test this, we compared the auditory threshold curves of 7 species of Venezuelan day-flying moths (Notodontidae: Dioptinae) to those of 12 sympatric species of nocturnal moths (Notodontidae: Dudusinae, Noctuidae and Arctiidae). Whereas 2 dioptines (Josia turgida, Zunacetha annulata) revealed normal ears, 2 (J. radians, J. gopala) had reduced hearing at bat-specific frequencies (20–80 kHz) and the remaining 3 (Thirmida discinota, Polypoetes circumfumata and Xenorma cytheris) revealed pronounced to complete levels of high-frequency deafness. Although the bat-deaf ears of dioptines could function in other purposes (e.g., social communication), the poor sensitivities of these species even at their best frequencies suggest that these moths represent a state of advanced auditory degeneration brought about by their diurnal life history. The phylogeny of the Notodontidae further suggests that this deafness is a derived (apomorphic) condition and not a retention of a primitive (pleisiomorphic), insensitive state. Accepted: 1 May 1997     

Pyralid moths (Lepidoptera,Pyraloidea) of Buryatia: Family Pyraustidae

A faunistic survey of 67 species of the family Pyraustidae from Buryatia is presented. Twenty species new to the territory investigated, and one species is new to the Asian part of Russia. For each species, data on the collection localities, general distribution, habitats, and host plants are reported.     

Phylogenetic utility and comparative morphology of the composite scale brushes in male phycitine moths (Lepidoptera, Pyralidae)

Male pyralid moths in the subfamily of Phycitinae are known to possess composite scale brush structures associated with the 8th abdominal sternite, but the histology and the structural morphology of these organs have not been adequately explored. As such, the phylogenetic utility of these structures is unknown. We examine the pre-genitalic abdominal histology of male Dioryctria reniculelloides (Pyralidae: Phycitinae) associated with the composite scale brushes, as well as structural morphology within the genus Dioryctria and two closely related genera. The composite scale brushes are composed of fused scales. The musculature associated with the base of sternum 8 shows considerable modification compared to previously described Lepidoptera. Complex glandular tissue was also found associated with the scale brush structures, suggesting secretory function. Phylogenetic utility of ultrastructure and gross morphology was examined for major Dioryctria species groups. Many characters were homoplasious, but several supported the monophyly of the genus, as well as some internal relationships. In conclusion, the combination of ultrastructural, gross morphological and histological characters can be a rich source of information for elucidating a range of evolutionary relationships within the subfamily.