基因型多样性对羊草种群年龄结构的影响

基因型多样性作为遗传多样性的重要组成部分,不仅在群落水平,而且在种群水平均可以发挥重要生态作用。以羊草（Leymus chinensis）为研究对象,设置5种基因型多样性梯度试验控制小区,进行基因型多样性对羊草种群年龄结构的影响研究。结果表明：随基因型多样性梯度的逐步增加,2a分蘖株生物量和数量均显著增加（P<0.05）;1-4龄级羊草根茎生物量、长度和干物质积累量多数呈极显著性增加的变化趋势（P<0.01）。在1、2、4、8和12种基因型多样性梯度时,分蘖株生物量及数量年龄结构均以1a或2a分蘖株所占比例为最高,年龄结构表现为增长型或稳定型;而羊草种群根茎生物量和长度也以2a根茎所占比例为最高,年龄结构表现为稳定型。随基因型多样性水平的增加,羊草种群分蘖株数量和生物量的年龄结构从增长型向稳定型过渡,但根茎长度和生物量的年龄结构均为稳定型。12基因型多样性水平的4龄级分蘖株和根茎的特征高于其他基因型多样性水平。因此,在不同基因型多样性水平羊草种群分蘖株和根茎具有增长型或稳定型的年龄结构,适当的基因型多样性数量显著促进了各龄级羊草分蘖株和根茎的生物量和数量特征的升高,但高度的基因型多样性水平会增加羊草种群中高龄级的分蘖株和根茎所占的比例,种群发展表现出衰退信号。     

Genetic diversity and population structure in Malus sieversii, a wild progenitor species of domesticated apple

Malus sieversii (Lebed.) M. Roem. is a wild progenitor species of the domesticated apple. It is found across a mountainous region of central Asia and has been the focus of several collection expeditions by the USDA-ARS-National Plant Germplasm System. This study used microsatellite variation at seven loci to estimate diversity and differentiation within M. sieversii using several complimentary approaches. Multilocus genotypes were amplified from 949 individuals representing seedling trees from 88 half-sib families from eight M. sieversii populations collected in Kazakhstan. Apportioning of genetic variation was estimated at both the family and site level. Analyses using a hierarchical model to estimate F _st showed that differentiation among individual families is more than three times greater than differentiation among sites. In addition, average gene diversity and allelic richness varied significantly among sites. A rendering of a genetic network among all sites showed that differentiation is largely congruent with geographical location. In addition, nonhierarchical Bayesian assignment methods were used to infer genetic clusters across the collection area. We detected four genetic clusters in the data set. The quality of these assignments was evaluated over multiple Markov Chain Monte Carlo runs using both posterior likelihood and stability of the assignments. The spatial pattern of genetic assignments among the eight collection sites shows two broadly distributed and two narrowly distributed clusters. These data indicate that the southwestern collection sites are more admixed and more diverse than the northern sites.     

Genetic diversity of nectar‐rewarding Platanthera chlorantha and nectarless Cephalanthera rubra

We examined the genetic diversity of two orchid species, the nectar‐rewarding Platanthera chlorantha and the nectarless Cephalanthera rubra, in north‐eastern Poland. We found lower differences in genetic diversity between the species than we expected. The level of genetic variation at species level was lower in C. rubra (P_POL = 14%, A = 1.14 and H_E = 0.060) than in P. chlorantha (P_POL = 25.5%, A = 1.35 and H_E = 0.078). In the majority of populations of both species a high proportion of unique genotypes was noted. The overall F_ST values for all populations were moderate and similar for both species (P. chlorantha: 0.251, P < 0.001; C. rubra: 0.267, P < 0.001). No relationship was found between genetic and geographical distances in either species (P > 0.05, Mantel test). We discuss the breeding systems, small population size and population subdivision as the most important factors affecting the genetic diversity of this species. We suggest that conservation programmes should be initiated to maintain or even increase the fitness and genetic variation of populations of both species. © 2013 The Linnean Society of London, Botanical Journal of the Linnean Society, 2013 , 171 , 751–763.     

Clonal diversity and polyphyletic origins of hybrid and spontaneous parthenogenetic Campeloma (Gastropoda: Viviparidae) from the south-eastern United States

Some theories for the maintenance of sexual reproduction indicate that parthenogens may persist if there is high clonal diversity and high dispersal rates. Using allozymic variation, we report on the origin, clonal diversity and population structure of hybrid and spontaneous parthenogens from south-eastern United States populations of the freshwater snail Campeloma. Independent origins of triploid hybrid parthenogens in the Florida panhandle occurred by hybridization between an Atlantic coastal species (C. limum or C. floridense) and the Florida sexual species (C. geniculum). Allozyme genotypic diversity is similar between these hybrid parthenogens and sexuals. Diploid spontaneous parthenogens originated multiple times from nonlocal C.limum sexual populations in Atlantic coastal rivers, and levels of genotypic diversity are significantly higher in sexual C. limum. How parthenogens originate, the degree of clonal diversity, and their subsequent dispersal influence whether basic assumptions of evolution-of-sex models are met.     

Genetic diversity and population structure of white-spotted charr, Salvelinus leucomaenis, in the Lake Biwa water system inferred from AFLP analysis

The genetic variations—and the time dependence of such variations—of natural populations of the white-spotted charr ,Salvelinus leucomaenis, in the Lake Biwa water system as well as those of a hatchery-reared population were inferred from AFLP. Upon the application of principal coordinate analysis using 118 polymorphic AFLP fragments based on the Jaccard similarity index, specimens of each of six natural local populations from the inlet rivers of Lake Biwa grouped roughly together, suggesting that each local population was genetically differentiated. The hatchery-reared population was shown to be closely related to the local population in the Seri River, suggesting that the Seri River population originated from hatchery-reared charr due to extensive stocking. Furthermore, specimens of the Yasu River grouped in a somewhat different position from the other natural populations, agreeing well with its geographic distance from the other populations. The nucleotide diversities of six natural populations (Harihata River, Ishida River, two reaches of the Takatoki River, Ane River, and Yasu River) in 2002 or 2003 were relatively low (π = 0.067–0.146%) compared with that of the Seri River (0.278%) and the hatchery-reared charr (0.316%). The nucleotide diversity in the five local populations (Ishida River, two reaches of the Takatoki River, Ane River, and Yasu River) remained at a low level from 1994 to 2002/2003, but only the nucleotide diversity in the Harihata River actually decreased. From 1994 to 2002/2003, the nucleotide diversity in the Seri River remained at a higher level among the natural populations from 1994 to 2002/2003; it was enhanced by the artificial release of hatchery-reared charr before 1994. In order to conserve the genetic diversity of the white-spotted charr in the Lake Biwa water system, it is necessary to prevent the stocking of hatchery-reared charr in reaches where hatchery-reared charr have not previously been stocked.     

Epiphytic and epixylic lichen species diversity in Estonian natural forests

The epiphytic and epixylic lichen flora of natural forests was recorded in different parts of Estonia. Altogether 232 taxa of lichens, lichenicolous fungi, or non-lichenized fungi were recorded, 10 of them listed in the Estonian Red Data Book. We found regional differences in lichen species composition and diversity caused by differences in the forest types. The tree-species-rich boreo-nemoral forests had the most diverse lichen flora, while the boreal forest dominated by coniferous trees or birch had the lowest diversity. The stand age proved to be significant in regard to the number of lichen species in a forest. The most remarkable effect on the diversity of forest lichen species was caused by the presence of Populus tremula. Aspen had the highest number of lichen species on the basal trunk and twigs, and also the highest number of host-specific lichen species.     

Clonal diversity in the agamospermous polyploids ofTaraxacum hondoense in northern Honshu,Japan

Chromosome numbers and allozyme variations were surveyed in 74 polyploid populations ofTaraxacum hondoense, in northern Honshu, Japan. Most of the populations (94.4%) consisted of triploid (2n=24), indicating the predominance of this ploidy level. Approximately 42.6% were found to contain tetraploid (2n=32), and a few plants were pentaploid (2n=40). Electrophoretic analysis at6 Pgdh-1 revealed twelve phenotypes with four alleles (including one putative null allele). The triploids showed excessive heterozygosity (82.4%) and all of the tetraploids and pentaploids were heterozygote. Phenotype IV was the most frequent and widely distributed in northern Honshu. Forty five percent of the populations were found to contain multiple phenotypes at 6Pgdh-1. A total of 21 clones were distinguished using three polymorphic loci (6Pgdh-1, Got andMdh), and a considerable amount of clonal diversity was detected both within and among polyploid populations ofT. hondoense. Factors causing multiclonality in agamospermous polyploids are discussed.     

Relationships between population size and loss of genetic diversity: comparisons of experimental results with theoretical predictions

Preservation of genetic diversity is of fundamental concern toconservation biology, as genetic diversity is required for evolutionarychange. Predictions of neutral theory are used to guide conservationactions, especially genetic management of captive populations ofendangered species. Loss of heterozygosity is predicted to be inverselyrelated to effective population size. However, there is controversy asto whether allozymes behave as predicted by this theory. Loss of geneticdiversity for seven allozyme loci, chromosome II inversions andmorphological mutations was investigated in 23 Drosophilamelanogaster populations, maintained at effective population sizesof 25 (8 replicates), 50 (6), 100 (4), 250 (3) and 500 (2) for 50generations. Allozyme genetic diversity (heterozygosity, percentpolymorphism and allelic diversity), inversions and morphologicalmutations were all lost at greater rates in smaller than largerpopulations. Conservation concerns about loss of genetic diversity insmall populations are clearly warranted. Across our populations, loss ofallozyme heterozygosity over generations 0–24, 0–49 and25–49 did not differ from the predictions of neutral theory. Thetrend in deviations was always in the direction expected withassociative overdominance. Our results support the use of neutral theoryto guide conservation actions, such as the genetic management ofendangered species in captivity.     

Reproductive and genetic characteristics of rare,disjunct pitch pine populations at the northern limits of its range in Canada

Pitch pine, Pinus rigida Mill., is a rare species in Canada, existing as a disjunct population in the St. Lawrence River Valley in eastern Ontario and two northern outlier stands in southern Quebec along Canada's southern border with the United States. Reproductive and genetic characteristics of these small, scattered stands were investigated to develop a foundation for management and restoration in the event of range expansion northwards under anticipated climate warming. Seed yields and seed quality appear to be comparable to other eastern conifers, and to pitch pine at the center of its geographic range. For seed and seedling growth traits, most of the variation was attributable to differences among trees within stands and, to a lesser extent, among stands within a population; whereas the population effect was non-significant. For reproductive traits, such as numbers of filled and empty seeds per cone, reproductive efficiency, and inbreeding estimates, high levels of variation (ranging from 26% to 33%) were found among stands, suggesting that stand structural features, such as stand size and tree density within stands, play an important role in pollination environment and overall reproductive success. Estimates of genetic diversity at 32 allozyme gene loci indicate that these small, isolated stands have maintained relatively high levels of genetic diversity compared with populations at the center of its geographic range, and also relative to other widely dispersed eastern conifers. The relatively high levels of viable seed production and genetic diversity in native pitch pine populations indicate that native Canadian populations may be suitable seed sources for species restoration and range expansion in Canada.     

Facultative sexual reproduction in the parthenogenetic ant Platythyrea punctata

Summary. In a few, scattered species of social Hymenoptera, unmated workers are capable of producing female offspring from unfertilized eggs through thelytokous parthenogenesis. Regular thelytoky has previously been demonstrated in a number of populations of the neotropical ant Platythyrea punctata. Nevertheless, the finding of males and inseminated queens and workers suggested the sporadic occurrence of sex. In this study we investigated the genetic structure of colonies from Puerto Rico and Costa Rica in order to detect traces of occasional sexual reproduction. Most Puerto Rican colonies had a clonal structure with all nestmates sharing the same multilocus genotype, indicating that thelytoky is the predominant mode of reproduction. Genetic variability was detected in six of 18 colonies and might have arisen from adoption of alien workers in one colony and from the adoption of alien workers, recombination during parthenogenesis, or sexual reproduction in the other colonies. The reproductive of one of these latter colonies was found to be an inseminated worker (gamergate), and the genotypes of its nestmates definitively suggested recombination and sexual reproduction. Three gamergates were found in a single colony collected in Costa Rica, and all produced offspring from fertilized eggs, while uninseminated workers were apparently incapable of reproducing by thelytoky.Received 10 August 2004; revised 20 October 2004; accepted 3 November 2004.     

Genetic diversity and population structure in the tomato-like nightshades Solanum lycopersicoides and S. sitiens

Background and Aims

Two closely related, wild tomato-like nightshade species, Solanum lycopersicoides and Solanum sitiens, inhabit a small area within the Atacama Desert region of Peru and Chile. Each species possesses unique traits, including abiotic and biotic stress tolerances, and can be hybridized with cultivated tomato. Conservation and utilization of these tomato relatives would benefit from an understanding of genetic diversity and relationships within and between populations.

Methods

Levels of genetic diversity and population genetic structure were investigated by genotyping representative accessions of each species with a set of simple sequence repeat (SSR) and allozyme markers.

Key Results

As expected for self-incompatible species, populations of S. lycopersicoides and S. sitiens were relatively diverse, but contained less diversity than the wild tomato Solanum chilense, a related allogamous species native to this region. Populations of S. lycopersicoides were slightly more diverse than populations of S. sitiens according to SSRs, but the opposite trend was found with allozymes. A higher coefficient of inbreeding was noted in S. sitiens. A pattern of isolation by distance was evident in both species, consistent with the highly fragmented nature of the populations in situ. The populations of each taxon showed strong geographical structure, with evidence for three major groups, corresponding to the northern, central and southern elements of their respective distributions.

Conclusions

This information should be useful for optimizing regeneration strategies, for sampling of the populations for genes of interest, and for guiding future in situ conservation efforts.     

Genetic diversity and morphological differentiation in Liatris helleri (Asteraceae), a threatened plant species

Liatris helleri (Asteraceae) is an insect-pollinated herbaceous perennial endemic to several high-elevation sites in the Blue Ridge Mountains of North Carolina. Allozymes were used to describe the genetic diversity and population structure in nine populations of this rare, federally listed species. Differences in leaf morphology were also examined for greenhouse-grown plants representing several populations. The proportion of the total genetic diversity found among populations, as indicated by the allozyme data, was 16%. Higher levels of population differentiation were found for differences in leaf shape; population of origin accounted for 37% of the variation in maximum leaf width, while families within populations accounted for 7%. In contrast to many endemic species, L. helleri maintains fairly high levels of genetic diversity. For the species, the percent polymorphic loci was 87.5, the average number of alleles at variable loci was 3.00 and the gene diversity was 0.276. Mean population values were percent polymorphic loci =58.4, mean number of alleles per polymorphic locus =2.59 and gene diversity =0.219. The estimated gene flow was low (Nm=0.85–1.32) and a relatively high correlation (r=0.55; p<0.005) was found between linear geographic and genetic distance. This suggests that the populations are partially isolated by distance, despite the limited range (<60 km) of the species. We recommend that population distinetiveness be maintained in restoration efforts.     

内蒙古典型草原建群种羊草基因型多样性抑制群落物种多样性的生态功能

植物群落的物种多样性以及群落建群种的基因型多样性对群落生态功能是否存在交互影响已成为群落生态学研究的热点内容。以内蒙古典型草原群落内常见物种为研究对象,研究了群落物种多样性与建群种羊草(Leymus chinensis)基因型多样性及其交互作用对群落生物量生态功能特性的影响。结果表明:(1)羊草基因型多样性、物种多样性及其交互作用对群落地上、地下和总生物量无显著影响(P0.05);(2)羊草基因型多样性、物种多样性及其交互作用对多样性效应(净多样性效应、互补效应和选择效应)有显著影响(P0.05)。羊草基因型多样性抑制多样性净效应的发挥,且主要抑制互补效应;而物种多样性则促进多样性净效应的发挥,主要表现为选择效应对地上生物量的正效应;(3)互补效应对群落生物量多样性净效应起主要贡献。实验所得结果不仅为探讨多样性效应在物种水平以及群落水平上对群落生物量的影响因素提供了重要启示,而且为内蒙古草原种质资源的保护及合理利用,乃至生态系统的恢复和重建提供理论指导。     

Clonal Diversity in Introduced Populations of An Asian Sea Anemone in North America

Previous reports hypothesized that introduced populations of the Asian sea anemone Diadumene lineata (Verill, 1870 (Presented 1869) Communications of the Essex Institution 6: 51–104), which reproduces by fission, are often monoclonal or to be composed of few clones. To test this hypothesis, sea anemones were collected from thirteen sites in three non-native regions and one native region: Chesapeake Bay, New England, central California, and Japan. The internal transcribed spacer (ITS) region separating nuclear ribosomal RNA genes was amplified from each individual using PCR and surveyed for DNA sequence variation using single strand conformational polymorphism analysis (SSCP). Fifty-six distinct electrophoretic banding patterns were found in 268 anemones, and each pattern was considered a different genotype. The number of genotypes in a population ranged from one to thirteen. Only one sample (York River, Chesapeake Bay, n = 10) was monoclonal, although six populations were dominated (>50%) by single genotype. Only four genotypes were found in more than one population, and these were confined to single regions. Walker Creek, California was sampled in 1995 and 1997 and no genotypes were found in both years, suggesting rapid shifts in genotype frequency. We conclude that multiple genotypes of D. lineata have invaded North America and that the primary importance of clonal growth for introduced populations is the production of colonizing propagules.     

Clonal and genetic diversity of Carex moorcroftii on the Qinghai-Tibet plateau

Carex moorcroftii Falc. ex Boott is a rhizomatous clonal sedge dominating vast alpine steppe and meadow vegetations in the hinterland of the Qinghai-Tibet plateau. To reveal the genetic and clonal structure of this species, nine populations were investigated using ten inter-simple sequence repeat (ISSR) markers. As compared to other rhizomatous Carex species, C. moorcroftii had lower genetic diversity (H_s = 0.10) at population level and higher genetic differentiation (G_st = 0.66) and lower gene flow (N_m = 0.26) between populations. Clonal diversity in C. moorcroftii in terms of Simpson index (D = 0.65) was comparable to that in other clonal species while lower than that in Carex species from the arctic and subarctic areas. The ratio of clonal diversity to genetic variation in C. moorcroftii was closely correlated with latitude, enabling a speculation about the northern migration of this species on this plateau.     

Clonal diversity and turnover in an overwintering Daphnia pulex population,and the effect of fish predation

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Large Hardy-Weinberg equilibrium deviations in the Daphnia longispina of Lake El Tobar

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Geographic ranges, population structure, and ages of sexual and parthenogenetic snail lineages

Abstract A sexual reproduction is thought to doom organisms to extinction due to mutation accumulation and parasite exploitation. Theoretical models suggest that parthenogens may escape the negative effects of conspecific and biological enemiecs through escape in space. Through intensive sequencing of a mitochondrial DNA (mtDNA) and a nuclear intron locus in sexual and pathenogenetic freshwater snails (Campelom), I examine three questionss: (1) Are sexual mtDNA lineage more restricted geographically than parthenogenetic mtDNA lineages? (2) Are independent pathenogenetic lineages shorter lived than sexual lineages? (3) Do pathenogens have higher intraindividual nuclear sequence diversity and form well‐differentiated monophyletic groups as expected under the Meselson effect? Geographic ranges of parthenogenetic lineages are significantly larger than geographic ranges of sexual lineages. Based on coalescence times under different deographic assumptions, asexual lineages are short lived, but there is variation in clonal ages. Although alternative explanations exit, these results suggest that asexual lineages may persist in the short term through dispersal, and that various constraints may cause geographic restriction of sexual lineagess. Both allotriploid and diploid Campleloma parthenogens have significantly higher allelic divergence within individuals, but show limited nuclear sequence divergence from sexual ancestors. In contrast to previous allozyme evidence for nonhybrid origins of diploid Campeloma parthenogens, cryptic hybridization may account for elevated heterozygosity.