BAD association with membranes is regulated by Raf kinases and association with 14-3-3 proteins

Using a set of specific kinase inhibitors we demonstrate that Raf kinases phosphorylate BAD at serines 112, 136 and 155 in vivo and in vitro. Exploring unexpected lipid binding properties of BAD we identified two lipid-binding domains located in its C-terminal part. Furthermore, we believe to have uncovered how phosphorylation-driven interaction with 14-3-3 regulates intracellular membrane localization of BAD. Observed activity of lipid-bound BAD as a membrane receptor for Bcl-XL opens new horizons in apoptosis research.     

c-ABL tyrosine kinase activity is regulated by association with a novel SH3-domain-binding protein.

The c-ABL tyrosine kinase is activated following either the loss or mutation of its Src homology domain 3 (SH3), resulting in both increased autophosphorylation and phosphorylation of cellular substrates and cellular transformation. This suggests that the SH3 domain negatively regulates c-ABL kinase activity. For several reasons this regulation is thought to involve a cellular protein that binds to the SH3 domain. Hyperexpression of c-ABL results in an activation of its kinase, the kinase activity of purified c-ABL protein in the absence of cellular proteins is independent of either the presence or absence of a SH3 domain, and point mutations and deletions within the SH3 domain are sufficient to activate c-ABL transforming ability. To identify proteins that interact with the c-ABL SH3 domain, we screened a cDNA library by the yeast two-hybrid system, using the c-ABL SH3SH2 domains as bait. We identified a novel protein, AAP1 (ABL-associated protein 1), that associates with these c-ABL domains and fails to bind to the SH3 domain in the activated oncoprotein BCRABL. Kinase experiments demonstrated that in the presence of AAP1, the ability of c-ABL to phosphorylate either glutathione S-transferase-CRK or enolase was inhibited. In contrast, AAP1 had little effect on the phosphorylation of glutathione S-transferase-CRK by the activated ABL oncoproteins v-ABL and BCRABL. We conclude that AAP1 inhibits c-ABL tyrosine kinase activity but has little effect on the tyrosine kinase activities of oncogenic BCRABL or v-ABL protein and propose that AAP1 functions as a trans regulator of c-ABL kinase. Our data also indicate that loss of susceptibility to AAP1 regulation correlates with oncogenicity of the activated forms of c-ABL.     

The Arabidopsis mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase MKK3 is upstream of group C mitogen-activated protein kinases and participates in pathogen signaling

Although the Arabidopsis thaliana genome contains genes encoding 20 mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs) and 10 MAPK kinases (MAPKKs), most of them are still functionally uncharacterized. In this work, we analyzed the function of the group B MAPK kinase, MKK3. Transgenic ProMKK3:GUS lines showed basal expression in vascular tissues that was strongly induced by Pseudomonas syringae pv tomato strain DC3000 (Pst DC3000) infection but not by abiotic stresses. The growth of virulent Pst DC3000 was increased in mkk3 knockout plants and decreased in MKK3-overexpressing plants. Moreover, MKK3 overexpression lines showed increased expression of several PR genes. By yeast two-hybrid analysis, coimmunoprecipitation, and protein kinase assays, MKK3 was revealed to be an upstream activator of the group C MAPKs MPK1, MPK2, MPK7, and MPK14. Flagellin-derived flg22 peptide strongly activated MPK6 but resulted in poor activation of MPK7. By contrast, MPK6 and MPK7 were both activated by H(2)O(2), but only MPK7 activation was enhanced by MKK3. In agreement with the notion that MKK3 regulates the expression of PR genes, ProPR1:GUS expression was strongly enhanced by coexpression of MKK3-MPK7. Our results reveal that the MKK3 pathway plays a role in pathogen defense and further underscore the importance and complexity of MAPK signaling in plant stress responses.     

Stomatal development and patterning are regulated by environmentally responsive mitogen-activated protein kinases in Arabidopsis

Stomata are specialized epidermal structures that regulate gas (CO(2) and O(2)) and water vapor exchange between plants and their environment. In Arabidopsis thaliana, stomatal development is preceded by asymmetric cell divisions, and stomatal distribution follows the one-cell spacing rule, reflecting the coordination of cell fate specification. Stomatal development and patterning are regulated by both genetic and environmental signals. Here, we report that Arabidopsis MITOGEN-ACTIVATED PROTEIN KINASE3 (MPK3) and MPK6, two environmentally responsive mitogen-activated protein kinases (MAPKs), and their upstream MAPK kinases, MKK4 and MKK5, are key regulators of stomatal development and patterning. Loss of function of MKK4/MKK5 or MPK3/MPK6 disrupts the coordinated cell fate specification of stomata versus pavement cells, resulting in the formation of clustered stomata. Conversely, activation of MKK4/MKK5-MPK3/MPK6 causes the suppression of asymmetric cell divisions and stomatal cell fate specification, resulting in a lack of stomatal differentiation. We further establish that the MKK4/MKK5-MPK3/MPK6 module is downstream of YODA, a MAPKKK. The establishment of a complete MAPK signaling cascade as a key regulator of stomatal development and patterning advances our understanding of the regulatory mechanisms of intercellular signaling events that coordinate cell fate specification during stomatal development.     

mTORC1 signaling can regulate growth factor activation of p44/42 mitogen-activated protein kinases through protein phosphatase 2A

The mTORC1 complex (mammalian target of rapamycin (mTOR)-raptor) is modulated by mitogen-activated protein (p44/42 MAP) kinases (p44/42) through phosphorylation and inactivation of the tuberous sclerosis complex. However, a role for mTORC1 signaling in modulating activation of p44/42 has not been reported. We show that in two cancer cell lines regulation of the p44/42 MAPKs is mTORC1-dependent. In Rh1 cells rapamycin inhibited insulin-like growth factor-I (IGF-I)-stimulated phosphorylation of Thr(202) but not Tyr(204) and suppressed activation of p44/42 kinase activity. Down-regulation of raptor, which inhibits mTORC1 signaling, had a similar effect to rapamycin in blocking IGF-I-stimulated Tyr(204) phosphorylation. Rapamycin did not block maximal phosphorylation of Tyr(204) but retarded the rate of dephosphorylation of Tyr(204) following IGF-I stimulation. IGF-I stimulation of MEK1 phosphorylation (Ser(217/221)) was not inhibited by rapamycin. Higher concentrations of rapamycin (> or =100 ng/ml) were required to inhibit epidermal growth factor (EGF)-induced phosphorylation of p44/42 (Thr(202)). Rapamycin-induced inhibition of p44/42 (Thr(202)) phosphorylation by IGF-I was reversed by low concentrations of okadaic acid, suggesting involvement of protein phosphatase 2A (PP2A). Both IGF-I and EGF caused dissociation of PP2A catalytic subunit (PP2Ac) from p42. Whereas low concentrations of rapamycin (1 ng/ml) inhibited dissociation of PP2Ac after IGF-I stimulation, it required higher concentrations (> or =100 ng/ml) to block EGF-induced dissociation, consistent with the ability for rapamycin to attenuate growth factor-induced activation of p44/42. The effect of rapamycin on IGF-I or insulin activation of p44/42 was recapitulated by amino acid deprivation. Rapamycin effects altering the kinetics of p44/42 phosphorylation were completely abrogated in Rh1mTORrr cells that express a rapamycin-resistant mTOR, whereas the effects of amino acid deprivation were similar in Rh1 and Rh1mTORrr cells. These results indicate complex regulation of p44/42 by phosphatases downstream of mTORC1. This suggests a model in which mTORC1 modulates the phosphorylation of Thr(202) on p44/42 MAPKs through direct or indirect regulation of PP2Ac.     

NKIAMRE,a novel conserved CDC2-related kinase with features of both mitogen-activated protein kinases and cyclin-dependent kinases

We report the cloning of the NKIAMRE gene located on human chromosome 5q31.1. It encodes a novel 52kDa Cdc2-related kinase with a 1.5kb open reading frame. Like MAP kinases, NKIAMRE contains a Thr-X-Tyr (TXY) motif in the activation loop domain. Similar to cdks, NKIAMRE contains the putative negative regulatory Ser14 and Tyr15 residues and the cyclin-binding motif, NKIAMRE, from which it derives its name. Human NKIAMRE has significant amino acid identity to related kinases in rat, mouse, Caenorhabditis elegans, and Drosophila, and is widely expressed in human tissues and cell lines. Confocal microscopy demonstrates that NKIAMRE localizes to the cytoplasm. NKIAMRE is activated by treatment of cells with phorbol 12-myristate 13-acetate. Mutation of the ATP-binding Lys-33 to arginine and the Thr-Glu-Tyr motif to Ala-Glu-Phe abolished its ability to phosphorylate myelin basic protein. NKIAMRE is a member of a conserved family of kinases with homology to both MAP kinases and cyclin-dependent kinases.     

The mitogen-activated protein kinase pathway can inhibit TRAIL-induced apoptosis by prohibiting association of truncated Bid with mitochondria

Breast cancer cells often show increased activity of the mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) pathway. We report here that this pathway reduces their sensitivity to death ligand tumor necrosis factor-related apoptosis-inducing ligand (TRAIL) and present the underlying mechanism. Activation of protein kinase C (PKC) inhibited TRAIL-induced apoptosis in a protein synthesis-independent manner. Deliberate activation of MAPK was also inhibitory. In digitonin-permeabilized cells, PKC activation interfered with the capacity of recombinant truncated (t)Bid to release cytochrome c from mitochondria. MAPK activation did not affect TRAIL or tumor necrosis factor (TNF)alpha-induced Bid cleavage. However, it did inhibit translocation of (t)Bid to mitochondria as determined both by subcellular fractionation analysis and confocal microscopy. Steady state tBid mitochondrial localization was prohibited by activation of the MAPK pathway, also when the Bcl-2 homology domain 3 (BH3) domain of tBid was disrupted. We conclude that the MAPK pathway inhibits TRAIL-induced apoptosis in MCF-7 cells by prohibiting anchoring of tBid to the mitochondrial membrane. This anchoring is independent of its interaction with resident Bcl-2 family members.     

Endogenous Xenopus-oocyte Ca-channels are regulated by protein kinases A and C.

Calcium entry into Xenopus oocyte occurs mainly through voltage-dependent calcium channels. These channels were characterized as belonging to a particular type of calcium channel insensitive to dihydropyridines, omega-conotoxin, and Agelenopsis aperta venom, but blocked by divalent cations (Co, Cd, Ni). Intracellular injection of cAMP, or bath application of phorbol ester, induced a marked increase in calcium current amplitude and a slowing of the inactivation time-course. Despite their different pharmacology, endogenous calcium channels, like cardiac or neuronal calcium channels, could be thus regulated by protein kinases A and C.     

Rapid turnover of extracellular signal-regulated kinase 3 by the ubiquitin-proteasome pathway defines a novel paradigm of mitogen-activated protein kinase regulation during cellular differentiation

Mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinases are stable enzymes that are mainly regulated by phosphorylation and subcellular targeting. Here we report that extracellular signal-regulated kinase 3 (ERK3), unlike other MAP kinases, is an unstable protein that is constitutively degraded in proliferating cells with a half-life of 30 min. The proteolysis of ERK3 is executed by the proteasome and requires ubiquitination of the protein. Contrary to other protein kinases, the catalytic activity of ERK3 is not responsible for its short half-life. Instead, analysis of ERK1/ERK3 chimeras revealed the presence of two destabilization regions (NDR1 and -2) in the N-terminal lobe of the ERK3 kinase domain that are both necessary and sufficient to target ERK3 and heterologous proteins for proteasomal degradation. To assess the physiological relevance of the rapid turnover of ERK3, we monitored the expression of the kinase in different cellular models of differentiation. We observed that ERK3 markedly accumulates during differentiation of PC12 and C2C12 cells into the neuronal and muscle lineage, respectively. The accumulation of ERK3 during myogenic differentiation is associated with the time-dependent stabilization of the protein. Terminal skeletal muscle differentiation is accompanied by cell cycle withdrawal. Interestingly, we found that expression of stabilized forms of ERK3 causes G(1) arrest in NIH 3T3 cells. We propose that ERK3 biological activity is regulated by its cellular abundance through the control of protein stability.     

Regulation of C3a receptor signaling in human mast cells by G protein coupled receptor kinases

Background

The complement component C3a activates human mast cells via its cell surface G protein coupled receptor (GPCR) C3aR. For most GPCRs, agonist-induced receptor phosphorylation leads to receptor desensitization, internalization as well as activation of downstream signaling pathways such as ERK1/2 phosphorylation. Previous studies in transfected COS cells overexpressing G protein coupled receptor kinases (GRKs) demonstrated that GRK2, GRK3, GRK5 and GRK6 participate in agonist-induced C3aR phosphorylation. However, the roles of these GRKs on the regulation of C3aR signaling and mediator release in human mast cells remain unknown.

Methodology/Principal Findings

We utilized lentivirus short hairpin (sh)RNA to stably knockdown the expression of GRK2, GRK3, GRK5 and GRK6 in human mast cell lines, HMC-1 and LAD2, that endogenously express C3aR. Silencing GRK2 or GRK3 expression caused a more sustained Ca²⁺ mobilization, attenuated C3aR desensitization, and enhanced degranulation as well as ERK1/2 phosphorylation when compared to shRNA control cells. By contrast, GRK5 or GRK6 knockdown had no effect on C3aR desensitization, but caused a significant decrease in C3a-induced mast cell degranulation. Interestingly, GRK5 or GRK6 knockdown rendered mast cells more responsive to C3a for ERK1/2 phosphorylation.

Conclusion/Significance

This study demonstrates that GRK2 and GRK3 are involved in C3aR desensitization. Furthermore, it reveals the novel finding that GRK5 and GRK6 promote C3a-induced mast cell degranulation but inhibit ERK1/2 phosphorylation via C3aR desensitization-independent mechanisms. These findings thus reveal a new level of complexity for C3aR regulation by GRKs in human mast cells.     

Regulation of mitogen-activated protein kinases in cardiac myocytes through the small G protein Rac1

Small guanine nucleotide-binding proteins of the Ras and Rho (Rac, Cdc42, and Rho) families have been implicated in cardiac myocyte hypertrophy, and this may involve the extracellular signal-related kinase (ERK), c-Jun N-terminal kinase (JNK), and/or p38 mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK) cascades. In other systems, Rac and Cdc42 have been particularly implicated in the activation of JNKs and p38-MAPKs. We examined the activation of Rho family small G proteins and the regulation of MAPKs through Rac1 in cardiac myocytes. Endothelin 1 and phenylephrine (both hypertrophic agonists) induced rapid activation of endogenous Rac1, and endothelin 1 also promoted significant activation of RhoA. Toxin B (which inactivates Rho family proteins) attenuated the activation of JNKs by hyperosmotic shock or endothelin 1 but had no effect on p38-MAPK activation. Toxin B also inhibited the activation of the ERK cascade by these stimuli. In transfection experiments, dominant-negative N17Rac1 inhibited activation of ERK by endothelin 1, whereas activated V12Rac1 cooperated with c-Raf to activate ERK. Rac1 may stimulate the ERK cascade either by promoting the phosphorylation of c-Raf or by increasing MEK1 and/or -2 association with c-Raf to facilitate MEK1 and/or -2 activation. In cardiac myocytes, toxin B attenuated c-Raf(Ser-338) phosphorylation (50 to 70% inhibition), but this had no effect on c-Raf activity. However, toxin B decreased both the association of MEK1 and/or -2 with c-Raf and c-Raf-associated ERK-activating activity. V12Rac1 cooperated with c-Raf to increase expression of atrial natriuretic factor (ANF), whereas N17Rac1 inhibited endothelin 1-stimulated ANF expression, indicating that the synergy between Rac1 and c-Raf is potentially physiologically important. We conclude that activation of Rac1 by hypertrophic stimuli contributes to the hypertrophic response by modulating the ERK and/or possibly the JNK (but not the p38-MAPK) cascades.     

Activation and targeting of mitogen-activated protein kinases by G-protein-coupled receptors

Over the past decade, it has become apparent that many G-protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) generate signals that control cellular differentiation and growth, including stimulation of Ras family GTPases and activation of mitogen-activated protein (MAP) kinase pathways. The mechanisms that GPCRs use to control the activity of MAP kinases vary between receptor and cell type but fall broadly into one of three categories: signals initiated by classical G protein effectors, e.g., protein kinase (PK)A and PKC, signals initiated by cross-talk between GPCRs and classical receptor tyrosine kinases, e.g., "transactivation" of epidermal growth factor (EGF) receptors, and signals initiated by direct interaction between beta-arrestins and components of the MAP kinase cascade, e.g., beta-arrestin "scaffolds". While each of these pathways results in increased cellular MAP kinase activity, emerging data suggest that they are not functionally redundant. MAP kinase activation occurring via PKC-dependent pathways and EGF receptor transactivation leads to nuclear translocation of the kinase and stimulates cell proliferation, while MAP kinase activation via beta-arrestin scaffolds primarily increases cytosolic kinase activity. By controlling the spatial and temporal distribution of MAP kinase activity within the cell, the consequences of GPCR-stimulated MAP kinase activation may be determined by the mechanism by which they are activated.     

Binding to syntenin-1 protein defines a new mode of ubiquitin-based interactions regulated by phosphorylation

Syntenin-1 is a PDZ domain-containing adaptor that controls trafficking of transmembrane proteins including those associated with tetraspanin-enriched microdomains. We describe the interaction of syntenin-1 with ubiquitin through a novel binding site spanning the C terminus of ubiquitin, centered on Arg(72), Leu(73), and Arg(74). A conserved LYPSL sequence in the N terminus, as well as the C-terminal region of syntenin-1, are essential for binding to ubiquitin. We present evidence for the regulation of this interaction through syntenin-1 dimerization. We have also established that syntenin-1 is phosphorylated downstream of Ulk1, a serine/threonine kinase that plays a critical role in autophagy and regulates endocytic trafficking. Importantly, Ulk1-dependent phosphorylation of Ser(6) in the LYPSL prevents the interaction of syntenin-1 with ubiquitin. These results define an unprecedented ubiquitin-dependent pathway involving syntenin-1 that is regulated by Ulk1.     

Protein kinases A and C positively regulate G protein-dependent activation of phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C by tumor necrosis factor-alpha in MC3T3-E1 osteoblasts

The role(s) of protein kinases in the regulation of G protein-dependent activation of phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C by tumor necrosis factor-alpha was investigated in the osteoblast cell line MC3T3-E1. We have previously reported the stimulatory effects of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and A1F₄⁻, an activator of G proteins, on this phospholipase pathway documented by a decrease in mass of PI and release of diacylglycerol. In this study, we further explored the mechanism(s) by which the tumor necrosis factor or A1F₄⁻ -promoted breakdown of phosphatidylinositol and the polyphosphoinositides by phospholipase C is regulated. Tumor necrosis factor-alpha was found to elicit a 4–5-fold increase in the formation of [³H]inositol-1,4-phosphate and [³H]inositol-1,4,5-phosphate; and a 36% increase in [³H]inositol-1-phosphate within 5 min in prelabeled cells. [³H]inositol-4-phosphate, a metabolite of [³H]inositol-1,4-phosphate and [³H]inositol-1,4,5-phosphate, was found to be the predominant phosphoinositol product of tumor necrosis factor-alpha and A1F₄⁻ -activated phospholipase C hydrolysis after 30 min. In addition, the preincubation of cells with pertussis toxin decreased the tumor necrosis factor-induced release of inositol phosphates by 53%. Inhibitors of protein kinase C, including Et-18-OMe and H-7, dramatically decreased the formation of [³H]inositol phosphates stimulated by either tumor necrosis factor-alpha or A1F₄⁻ by 90–100% but did not affect basal formation. The activation of cAMP-dependent protein kinase, or protein kinase A, by the treatment of cells with forskolin or 8-BrcAMP augmented basal, tumor necrosis factor-alpha and A1F₄⁻-induced [³H]inositol phosphate formation. Therefore, we report that protein kinases can regulate tumor necrosis factor-alpha-initiated signalling at the cell surface in osteoblasts through effects on the coupling between receptor, G-protein and phosphatidylinositol-specific phospholipase C. J. Cell. Biochem. 65:198–208. © 1997 Wiley-Liss, Inc.     

Integrins regulate the linkage between upstream and downstream events in G protein-coupled receptor signaling to mitogen-activated protein kinase

Receptor tyrosine kinases (RTKs) and G protein-coupled receptors (GPCRs) can both activate mitogen-activated protein kinase (MAPK), a critical intermediate in the transduction of proliferative signals. Numerous observations have demonstrated that integrin-mediated cell anchorage can regulate the efficiency of signaling from RTKs to MAPK. Recently, a relationship between integrins and GPCR signaling has also emerged; however, little is understood concerning the mechanisms involved. Here, we investigate integrin regulation of GPCR signaling to MAPK, focusing on the P2Y class of GPCRs that function through activation of phospholipase Cbeta. P2Y receptor signaling to the downstream components mitogen-activated protein kinase kinase and MAPK is highly dependent on integrin-mediated cell anchorage. However, activation of upstream events, including inositol phosphate production and generation of calcium transients, is completely independent of cell anchorage. This indicates that integrins regulate the linkage between upstream and downstream events in this GPCR pathway, just as they do in some aspects of RTK signaling. However, the P2Y pathway does not involve cross-activation of a RTK, nor a role for Shc or c-Raf; thus, it is quite distinct from the classical RTK-Ras-Raf-MAPK cascade. Rather, integrin-modulated P2Y receptor stimulation of MAPK depends on calcium and on the activation of protein kinase C.